1. No category

Nombre
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CAPÍTULO
1
Subjects and verbs in sentences
In English Sentences have a subject and a verb. The subject is the person or
thing doing something or being described. The verb is an action word like run or
sing, or a word like am, is, or are that links the subject to a description.
Mrs. Pérez is my Spanish teacher.
She is from Florida.
We like her very much.
English sentences always have a subject. The subject can be a noun or a pronoun. A noun refers to a person, a thing, or a place. A noun can be replaced with
a pronoun, which is a word that stands for the noun. Words such as I, you, he,
she, it, we, and they are all pronouns.
Juan is a classmate. He is my best friend. (He stands for Juan.)
A
Circle the conjugated verb and underline the subject in each sentence.
Susan
Pablo
Susan
Pablo
Susan
Pablo
Susan
Hi, I am Susan.
Hello, my name is Pablo. Where are you from?
I am from the United States. Are you from Madrid?
Yes, I go to the Colegio Miguel de Cervantes. Where do you study?
I study at Lincoln High School. I like Spanish a lot.
Great! Who is your teacher?
Miss Garza is my teacher. She is very friendly and intelligent. Can I
practice my Spanish with you by email?
Pablo Sure, I want to have an American pen pal.
In Spanish Sentences also have a subject and a verb. A subject can be a noun
or a pronoun. Some pronouns you’ve seen are él, ella, tú, and usted. Unlike in
English, in Spanish the subject noun or subject pronoun can be left out of a sentence if everyone knows who or what you’re talking about. When this is the case,
the verb, such as es, estoy, or estás, is enough!
La señora Pérez es mi profesora. Ella es de Madrid.
Antonio es mi amigo. Es de España.
¿Cómo estás?
Estoy bien, gracias.
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SUBJECTS AND VERBS IN SENTENCES
B
Circle the conjugated verbs and underline their subjects in this conversation.
Miguel
Lola
Miguel
Lola
Hola, yo soy Miguel.
Yo soy Lola. ¿Qué tal?
Muy bien. ¿Quién es él?
Mi amigo se llama Santiago. Él es un compañero de clase. Él es de
Barcelona. ¿Y quién es la señora?
Miguel La señora es la profesora Montero. Ella es mi profesora
de ciencias.
Lola Muy bien. Hasta luego.
Miguel Adiós.
C
Some subjects have been left out of the following conversation because they
aren’t needed. Underline all the verbs and then circle those verbs whose subject
has been left out.
Arturo ¡Buenos días! Soy Arturo.
Yolanda Encantada, Arturo. Yo soy Yolanda. Y éste es mi amigo José.
Es un compañero de clase.
Arturo Mucho gusto, José. ¿De dónde eres?
Yolanda Soy de Cuba. ¿De dónde eres tú?
Arturo Yo soy de Panamá. ¿Y quién es la muchacha?
Yolanda Ella es mi mejor amiga, Leticia. Es de la República Dominicana.
Ah, y éste es el señor Ruiz. Es mi profesor de ciencias.
Arturo Encantado, profesor.
Señor Ruiz Igualmente.
D
Read the following sentences in English and Spanish. What would happen if you
left out the subject in English? Why do you think you can often leave out the
subject pronoun in Spanish?
Soy de Barcelona.
I am from Barcelona.
Es mi mejor amiga.
She is my best friend.
Es un compañero de clase.
He is a classmate.
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Present tense of the verb ser
In English The verb to be is the most common verb. It has many uses. Some
of them are to describe or define people or things, to say where people are from,
to give the date, day and time, and to give a telephone number. Like all verbs, to
be is conjugated, that is, it changes its form to match the subject.
I am Carlos.
You are from Managua.
Today is Friday, March 2.
A
We are from Argentina.
You are high school students.
They are my friends.
Circle the form of the verb to be in the following sentences, and underline the
subject of the sentence.
1. Yolanda is from Maracay, Venezuela.
2. It is ten o’clock.
3. Tomorrow is Thursday.
4. We are your cousins.
5. I am from Valparaíso, Chile.
6. You are a very good student.
7. Mr. Matute and Mrs. Shumway are our teachers.
8. You are my best friends.
In Spanish The verb ser (to be) is also used to describe or define people or
things, to say where people are from, to give the date, day and time, and to give a
telephone number. Just like to be in English, ser is conjugated. It changes its
form to match the subject. Here is the conjugation of ser:
yo
soy
nosotros(as)
somos
tú
eres
vosotros(as)
sois
él, ella, Ud.
es
ellos, ellas, Uds.
son
B
Circle the form of the verb ser in the following sentences. Underline the subject
of the sentence, or write an M when it is missing.
M
1. Es de Madrid, España.
2. Hoy es el tres de agosto.
3. Son las cuatro y veinte.
4. Ustedes no son mis compañeros de clase.
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1
PRESENT TENSE OF THE VERB SER
5. Soy tu mejor amigo.
6. Nosotros somos de Valencia, España.
7. Ellas son profesoras.
8. ¿Cómo está usted?
C
Circle the correct form of the verb ser in the following sentences.
1. Marta Valdés (soy/eres/es) mi mejor amiga.
2. Las profesoras Pérez y Garza (somos/sois/son) de Brownsville, Texas.
3. Yo (soy/eres/es) de Panamá.
4. Mis amigos y yo (soy/somos/son) compañeros de clase.
5. Usted (soy/eres/es) el profesor de ciencias.
6. Tú y Alicia (soy/eres/son) amigas.
7. Hoy (soy/es/son) el doce de octubre.
8. Tú no (soy/eres/es) de México.
D
Complete the following conversation with the correct form of ser.
Blanca
Jorge
Sonia
Jorge
Sonia
Jorge
Blanca
Jorge
Sonia
Jorge
E
es
Jorge, ésta
mi mejor amiga, Sonia.
Hola, Sonia. ¿Tú
una compañera de clase?
Sí,
una compañera de clase.
Ah. ¿Y el profesor Martínez, de dónde
?
Él
de Uruguay, ¿Y tú, de dónde
? ¿de Perú?
No, no
de Perú,
de Ecuador.
Y ustedes, ¿de dónde
?
Nosotras
de Monterrey, México. ¿Qué hora
?
las dos y media. Tengo que irme.
Adiós, Jorge. ¿Nosotros
amigos?
Sí, mis compañeras de clase
mis amigas. ¡Adiós!
What are the differences between the conjugations of English to be and Spanish
ser? Which has more forms?
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Punctuation marks and written accents
1
In English Question marks (?) and exclamation points (!) are placed at the
end of sentences that are questions or exclamations.
How are you?
A
So good to see you!
Write the appropriate punctuation mark at the end of each sentence: (?) for
questions and (!) for exclamations.
1. Where are you from
2. See you tomorrow
3. That’s a great idea
4. What’s your name
5. Nice to meet you
6. How’s it going
7. What time is it
8. Goodbye
In Spanish Besides the punctuation marks used at the end of a sentence (?
and !), upside-down punctuation marks such as (¿) and (¡) are placed at the
beginning of a phrase to signal a question or an exclamation. Both beginning
and end marks must be used.
¿Cómo está usted?
How are you?
¡Hasta mañana!
See you tomorrow!
B
Below are the same sentences from Activity A written in Spanish. Write the
appropriate punctuation marks at the beginning and end of each sentence:
(¿…?) for questions and (¡…!) for exclamations.
1.
De dónde eres
2.
Hasta mañana
3.
Qué gran idea
4.
Cómo te llamas
5.
Encantada
6.
Qué tal
7.
Qué hora es
8.
Adiós
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1
PUNCTUATION MARKS AND WRITTEN ACCENTS
In Spanish An accent mark is a tilted line (´) over a vowel (as in the word
días). It often tells you which syllable to stress. Placing accent marks is part of
correct spelling, so you should memorize them when you learn new words.
¿Cómo está usted?
mediodía
miércoles
The wavy line in the letter ñ is called a tilde. The ñ is pronounced much like ny
in the English word canyon.
Señora Núñez
C
Look again at Activity B. How many accent marks and tildes can you find in
sentences 1-8?
Accent marks
D
compañero
Tildes
Write a conversation between a new friend and yourself using the following
phrases. Use question marks, exclamation points, tildes, and accent marks
where needed.
Adios.
Hasta manana
Que dia es hoy
Cual es tu telefono
De donde eres
Como te llamas
Hoy es miercoles
Tengo que irme
Mas o menos
Me llamo…
Que tal estas
De donde eres
Encantado.
Encantada
Mi telefono es …
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Soy de…
Estoy bien
Y tu
Buenos dias
Hola
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2
Gender and adjective agreement
In English Words that describe people or things are called adjectives. They
can be used with the verb to be to say what someone or something is like.
Robert is tall. (Robert is a noun; tall is an adjective.)
That pretty girl is also tall. (girl is a noun; pretty and tall are adjectives.)
The teachers are funny and friendly. They are all tall as well.
(teachers is a noun; funny, friendly and tall are adjectives.)
The adjective tall, or any other English adjective, does not change form, no matter whether it describes a noun that is singular or plural, masculine or feminine.
A
Circle each adjective and underline the noun or pronoun it describes. Then check
off whether the noun described is singular (S) or plural (P).
S
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
P
✓
Dorothy is dark-haired.
We are intelligent.
My best friend is lazy.
The boys are shy.
Dwayne is handsome.
The math books are boring.
My classmates are athletic.
I am friendly and outgoing.
In Spanish People or things are also described with adjectives. However,
they change their endings to match the gender of the nouns or pronouns they
describe. Most adjectives have a masculine form ending in –o and a feminine
form ending in –a.
Raúl es listo.
Marta es lista.
Adjectives that end in –e have the same masculine and feminine forms. Adjectives
ending in a consonant do not add an –a, unless they refer to nationality or end in –or.
El profesor es inteligente.
La profesora es inteligente.
Él es intelectual y trabajador. Ella es intelectual y trabajadora.
Adjectives also agree with nouns in number. If the singular form ends in a vowel,
add an –s to make it plural. If the singular form ends in a consonant, add –es. To
describe a group of males and females, a masculine plural form is used.
Los profesores son extrovertidos.
Susana y Marta son graciosas.
Mis compañeras son interesantes.
Mis amigos son intelectuales.
Teresa y Pedro son antipáticos y trabajadores.
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2
GENDER AND ADJECTIVE AGREEMENT
B
Circle each adjective and underline the noun or pronoun it describes. Then,
check the right column to tell whether the noun described is singular (S) or
S
P
M
F
plural (P), masculine (M) or feminine (F).
✓
1. Rafael es moreno.
✓
2. Nosotras somos inteligentes.
3. Mi mejor amiga es muy guapa.
4. Arturo y Julio son bajos.
5. Los profesores son divertidos.
6. Rosario es seria.
7. Emilia y Fátima son perezosas.
8. Mis compañeros de clase son simpáticos.
C
Circle the appropriate adjective to complete each sentence.
1. Teresa es (pelirroja/pelirrojas).
2. Los estudiantes son (trabajador/trabajadores).
3. Nosotras somos (bonitos/bonitas).
4. Mi mejor amigo es (tímido/tímidos).
5. Mi profesora de ciencias es (simpático/simpática).
6. Ustedes son muy (inteligentes/inteligente).
7. La señora Hurtado es (aburrida/aburridos).
8. Elisa y Gabriel son (románticos/románticas).
D
Rewrite the following sentences so the subject is feminine and plural. Then,
answer the questions in c.
a. My friend is lazy. _______________________________________________
b. Mi amigo es perezoso.____________________________________________
c. Do words need to be changed in the English sentence? in the Spanish sentence? What do you conclude about adjective agreement in Spanish?
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2
Question formation
In English Some questions with the verb to be require yes or no as an answer.
In such cases, the subject must usually go after the verb.
Is the teacher intelligent?
Are you shy?
Yes, the teacher is intelligent.
No, I’m not shy.
In all other questions with to be, you must use a question word such as how,
who, when, where, or what at the beginning of the sentence.
How old are you?
Where are you from?
What time is it?
A
Circle the correct question word to complete the following sentences.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
(Where/Who) do you live?
(What/When) is your favorite color?
(Why /How) are you doing?
(When/Who) is your birthday?
(What/Where) restaurant did you eat at?
(Who/What) is your teacher’s name?
(How many/Where) dogs do you have?
In Spanish Some questions require sí or no as an answer. At the end of such
questions, you must raise the pitch of your voice. The subject can go before or
after the verb, or it can be dropped altogether. In your answer, you must say no
twice: once to mean no and a second time to mean not.
¿Eres trabajadora?
¿Juan es bajo? / ¿Es bajo Juan?
Sí, soy trabajadora.
No, Juan no es bajo.
When you ask for more information, you use question words. They are all written with an accent mark.
¿Cómo es Eugenia?
What’s Eugenia like?
¿De dónde eres?
Where are you from?
¿Quién es el profesor de ciencas?
Who is the science teacher?
¿Qué hora es?
What time is it?
¿Cuántos años tienes?
How old are you?
¿Cuándo es tu cumpleaños?
When is your birthday?
B
Circle the correct question word to complete the following questions.
1. ¿(Cuántos/Cómo) años tienes?
2. ¿(Cómo/Cuándo) está usted?
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2
QUESTION FORMATION
3. ¿(Cuántos/Cuándo) es el cumpleaños de Luz María?
4. ¿(Qué/Cómo) te llamas?
5. ¿(Quién/Cuándo) es la profesora de español?
6. ¿(Qué/Cuál) es tu teléfono?
7. ¿(Cuándo/De dónde) es Miguel de Cervantes?
8. ¿(Cuántos/Cómo) es la compañera de clase? ¿Es divertida?
C
D
Write an appropriate question for each answer.
1. —¿Cuántos años tiene Daniel?
—Daniel tiene catorce años.
2. —
—Estoy muy bien, gracias.
3. —
—La profesora es atlética y graciosa.
4. —
—Soy de Maracaibo, Venezuela.
5. —
—El profesor es el señor Herrera.
6. —
—Son las doce y media.
7. —
—Hoy es viernes, el quince de octubre.
1. Translate this yes/no question into English: ¿Juan es de España?
2. How is the word order different in English?
3. How would someone hearing the Spanish sentence know that it is a question
rather than a statement?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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2
Nouns and definite articles/plural nouns
In English Words used to name people, places and things are called nouns.
Often a noun is introduced by the definite article the.
The teacher is intelligent.
(teacher is a noun)
Cristina listens to the radio.
(radio is a noun)
The Mexican restaurant is great.
(restaurant is a noun)
The is used with all nouns: nouns that refer to the masculine gender (like boy),
the feminine gender (like actress), and those that have no gender (like radio,
restaurant, and most other nouns in English).
A
Circle the definite articles in the following sentences, and underline the noun
each article goes with.
1. The musician plays jazz.
2. We won the volleyball game.
3. My mom dropped the salad.
4. The birthday party ended late.
5. He ate all the hamburgers.
6. My sister took the football.
7. The CD is scratched.
8. All the animals left the zoo.
In Spanish All nouns have a gender: masculine nouns tend to end in –o (helado)
and feminine nouns tend to end in –a (fiesta). To form a plural noun, add an –s to
a noun ending in a vowel, or add –es to a noun ending in a consonant.
deporte sport
deportes sports
animal animal
animales animals
When you you speak about a noun as a general category, you use definite
article, which is equivalent to English the. In Spanish, the has different forms
that agree with the noun in gender and number:
MASCULINE
el profesor
los profesores
FEMININE
SINGULAR
la profesora
PLURAL
las profesoras
You can also use the definite article after the verb gustar (Me gusta la pizza. I
like pizza.)
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NOUNS AND DEFINITE ARTICLES/PLURAL NOUNS
2
B
Circle the definite articles in the following sentences, and underline the noun
each article goes with. Then check the appropriate column to tell whether the
noun is masculine (M) or feminine (F), singular (S) or plural (P).
M
F
S
P
✓
✓
1. Me gusta el ajedrez.
2. ¿Te gusta la comida china?
3. Las compañeras de clase son bonitas.
4. Hoy es el cumpleaños de Ana.
5. No me gusta la música pop.
6. ¿Te gustan mucho las verduras?
7. Los libros de aventuras son fenomenales.
8. Me gustan más los deportes.
C
Complete the following sentences with the correct definite article.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
D
la
¿Te gusta
comida italiana?
No, me gustan más
frutas.
¿Te gusta más
pizza o
helado?
Me da igual. Me gustan más
verduras.
¿Te gustan
videojuegos?
No, me gusta más
ajedrez.
¿Te gustan
libros de ciencia ficción?
Sí, y también me gustan
películas de misterio.
Write three sentences telling what you like or what your friend likes, using me
gusta or le gusta. Circle the definite article, then underline the noun and tell
whether it is masculine or feminine.
Me gusta la pizza. FEMININE
1. ______________________________________________________________
2. ___________________________________________________________________________________________
3. ___________________________________________________________________________________________
4. ___________________________________________________________________________________________
E
Of these words, which have endings that you can easily tell are masculine or
feminine? Which have endings whose gender is less obvious?
la pizza
el helado
el deporte
las verduras
los videojuegos
la clase
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las frutas
los carros
el ajedrez
la música
el libro
la vez
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2
Uses of de
In English An ’s (apostrophe s) is added to a singular noun to show possession or relationship to one person. In the plural, an apostrophe alone (’) is added
after the –s ending of most plural nouns.
Timmy’s books are in his backpack.
My friend’s classes are wonderful.
The teachers’ lounge is empty.
The girls’ basketball team won the championship.
A
Complete the following sentences with the possessive forms of the nouns in
parentheses.
1. Our
teacher’s
office is full of books. (teacher)
2. My
anniversary is tomorrow. (parents)
3. The
claws are very sharp! (cat)
4.
violin lesson ends at seven. (Kathleen)
5. Your
party was so much fun! (friends)
6. That man over there is
uncle. (James)
7. Dora saw all the
basketball games. (women)
8. My
room is very messy. (sister)
In Spanish The word de is used to show possession or relationship. Use de
with singular and plural nouns.
Es la casa de mis amigos.
Es el profesor de mi mejor amiga.
It’s my friends’ house.
He is my best friend’s teacher.
You can also use de to indicate the kind of thing you’re describing.
los libros de amor
romance books
las películas de ciencia ficción
science fiction movies
You use de to say where someone is from.
Viviana es de Colombia.
Viviana is from Colombia.
When de is followed by the article el, both words combine to form the contraction del.
Hoy es el cumpleaños del profesor.
(de + el profesor)
B
Complete the following sentences with the possessive forms of the nouns in
parentheses.
1. Los libros son
de Marina
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. (Marina)
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2
USES OF DE
2. Son los videojuegos
. (mi mejor amigo)
3. Hoy es la fiesta
. (los estudiantes)
4. Es el carro
. (el señor Rueda).
5. ¿Cuál es el correo electrónico
? (la profesora)
6. Es la pizza
. (el muchacho)
7. Ricardo es amigo
C
. (los animales)
Answer the questions using the preposition de to say what kind of for each noun.
1. ¿Qué libros te gustan? (libros / amor)
Me gustan los libros de amor.
2. ¿Te gustan mucho los libros? (libros / aventuras)
3. ¿Te gustan las películas? (películas / misterio)
4. ¿Quién es el señor Rodríguez? (profesor / ciencias)
5. ¿Te gustan los videojuegos? (videojuegos / ciencia ficción)
6. ¿Qué música te gusta? (música / fiestas)
D
Translate the following phrases into English.
a. el libro de aventuras _____________________________________________
b. el libro de mi amigo _____________________________________________
c. la muchacha de Puerto Rico _______________________________________
E.
In Activity D, how did you translate de in each case? What does this difference
tell us about the different uses of de?
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3
Gustar with infinitives
In English An infinitive tells the meaning of a verb without naming any subject. Infinitives do not have any special endings, but they almost always have
the word to before them.
to eat
to run
to play
to draw
Just like nouns, infinitives can be used after another verb, such as to like. It is
also possible to have –ing forms of the verb following to like.
Jennifer likes music.
I like to draw.
I like drawing.
We all like to swim in cold water.
We all like swimming.
A
Circle the verb that follows to like in each sentence. Then write whether it is an
infinitive or an –ing form.
infinitive
1. Brad likes to surf the Web.
2. I like riding my bike.
3. We like eating at the Cuban restaurant.
4. My friends like to ski.
5. Do you like to play the guitar?
6. Albert likes fishing.
7. My best friend likes to run in the park.
8. Margarita likes reading novels.
In Spanish All infinitives have special endings. There are three types: those
ending in –ar, those ending in –er, and those ending in –ir.
–ar infinitives
–er infinitives
–ir infinitives
bailar to dance
correr to run
vivir to live
Infinitives, like nouns, can be used after a verb like gustar to say what you and
others like to do. Only infinitives can be used after this verb. Always use gusta
(not gustan) with infinitives.
Me gusta el chocolate.
I like chocolate
Te gusta bailar.
You like to dance.
Nos gusta vivir aquí.
We like living here.
He likes to write letters.
Le gusta escribir cartas.
B
Circle the verb that follows gustar in each sentence. Then write whether it is an
–ar, –er, or –ir infinitive.
1. A Benito le gusta navegar por Internet.
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–ar
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Nombre
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3
GUSTAR WITH INFINITIVES
2. A Teresita le gusta montar en bicicleta.
3. Les gusta comer en el restaurante chino.
4. A mis amigos les gusta leer novelas.
5. Te gusta tocar el piano.
6. Me gusta salir con mis amigos.
7. A Asun le gusta correr por el parque.
8. No nos gusta ir de compras.
C
You’re being interviewed about your friends and yourself. Answer the following
questions using the correct form of the verb gustar.
1. ¿Te gusta leer libros o ver televisión?
______________________________________________________________
2. ¿A tus amigos les gusta dibujar o escuchar música?
______________________________________________________________
3. ¿A tu mejor amigo le gusta bailar o cantar?
______________________________________________________________
4. ¿A tus amigos les gusta hacer ejercicio o hacer la tarea?
______________________________________________________________
5. ¿Qué te gusta hacer por las tardes?
______________________________________________________________
6. ¿Qué no te gusta hacer?
______________________________________________________________
D
Translate the following sentences, then answer the questions.
a. I like magazines.
______________________________________________________________
b. I like to read magazines.
______________________________________________________________
c. How does the form of the verb change? Does this have to do with the use of
the infinitive? If so, how?
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3
Pronouns after prepositions
In English Pronouns stand for a person or thing, yet often have different forms
depending on how they are used in the sentence. There are two kinds of pronouns in English: subject pronouns and object pronouns. A subject pronoun stands for the subject of the sentence. An object pronoun can be the
object of the action of the verb, or it can come after a preposition (such as to).
I gave them a gift.
She brought them to us.
Here are the subject pronouns and their corresponding object pronouns.
I
➔
you ➔
he ➔
she ➔
it ➔
A
we ➔ us
you ➔ you
me
you
him
her
it
they ➔ them
In each sentence, circle the subject pronoun and underline the object pronouns.
1. I sent a message to you.
2. She asked me to give it to her.
3. They have no problem with it.
4. They don’t have time for him.
5. He’s heard a lot about us.
6. She knows them very well.
7. We saw you talking to her.
8. Do they think it works for them?
In Spanish You know subject pronouns and those used with gustar.
Pronouns have a different form when they come after a preposition, such as a
(to), de (of, from, about), con (with) and en (in, at, on). Here are the forms:
Subject
With
gustar
After a
Subject
preposition
yo
➔
tú
➔
él
➔
ella ➔
usted ➔
me
te
le
le
le
mí
ti
él
ella
usted
nosotros
vosotros
ellos
ellas
ustedes
➔
➔
➔
➔
➔
With
gustar
After a
preposition
nos
os
les
les
les
nosotros
vosotros
ellos
ellas
ustedes
Note the special forms conmigo (con + mí) and contigo (con + ti). Also, a +
a pronoun can be used with gustar to clarify or emphasize who likes something.
Tú y tu amigo son divertidos. Me gusta salir con ustedes.
A mí me gusta pasear contigo, y a ella le gusta salir conmigo.
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Nombre
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3
PRONOUNS AFTER PREPOSITIONS
B
In these sentences, circle the subject pronoun and the pronoun coming after a
preposition. Underline the pronouns used with gustar.
1. Yo soy Adela, y a mí me gusta patinar.
2. Nos gusta mucho salir contigo.
3. A ustedes les gusta hacer la tarea conmigo, ¿no?
4. ¿Y a Josefina? ¿Qué le gusta hacer a ella?
5. ¿Y a Agustín? ¿Cuál es el teléfono de él?
6. Tú eres atlético; a ti te gusta correr.
7. A nosotros no nos gusta nadar.
8. ¿Cuándo es el cumpleaños de ellos?
C
Complete the following conversation with the correct pronouns.
Yo
Luis (1)
soy Luis. ¿Y (2)
? ¿Cómo te llamas?
Julián Me llamo Julián. Me gusta mucho leer. ¿Y a (3)
qué te
gusta hacer?
Luis A mí (4)
gusta leer también. A mi amigo y a
(5)
nos gusta escuchar música y nadar.
Julián ¿Sí? ¿A (6)
dos les gusta mucho estudiar también?
Luis Sí, más o menos. A (7)
también nos gusta estudiar y
navegar por Internet.
Julián Quiero estudiar. ¿Ustedes quieren estudiar (8) con
?
Luis Sí, mi amigo y yo queremos estudiar (9) con
. ¿Hoy?
Julián Sí, a las cuatro. ¿Cómo se llama tu amigo? ¿Cuál es el teléfono de
(10)
?
Luis Se llama Santi. El teléfono es el 3-48-15-55. Y mi hermana es Gloria.
Nos gusta estudiar con (11)
también.
Julián Perfecto. ¡Hasta luego!
D
Compare the subject pronouns and the pronouns after prepositions in English
and in Spanish. In which language are they mostly different? In which language
are they mostly similar? What exceptions are there?
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Present tense of verbs
In English Verbs are words that express actions or states of being. The endings of most verbs do not change, unless the subject (the doer of the action) is
he, she, it, or a single person, such as Rosa or my friend. Since other forms have no
endings that tell who the doer is, the subject pronouns cannot be left out.
I eat dinner at 6, but you eat at 8.
He sings well, but she sings badly.
Here are the subject pronouns and their corresponding forms for the verb to sing.
I
sing
we
sing
you
sing
you
sing
he, she,it
sings
they
sing
A
Draw a straight line under the subject and a dashed line under the verb in each
sentence. Then circle the ending of each verb. Not all verbs have an ending.
1. The class interests me.
2. Rebecca sings well.
3. I almost never dance at parties.
4. You always talk to Juan.
5. Begoña plays her guitar every day.
6. We work hard at my school.
7. My mother listens to music after work.
8. My two best friends skate at the mall.
In Spanish Every verb has a stem which tells the meaning of the verb. Verb
endings change according to the subject. (For this reason, the subject pronouns
are often left out.) Changing the endings is called conjugating the verb. When
the infinitive ends in –ar, drop the –ar ending and attach the following endings:
cantar to sing
yo
canto
nosotros(as)
cantamos
tú
cantas
vosotros(as)
cantáis
usted, él, ella
canta
ustedes, ellos, ellas
cantan
All regular –ar verbs have endings like cantar. The verb jugar has these endings, too, but its stem vowel changes from u to ue in all forms but nosotros
and vosotros. Other verbs, like ir, are unpredictable. They are irregular.
yo juego
voy
nosotros(as)
jugamos vamos
tú juegas vas
vosotros(as)
jugáis
vais
usted, él, ella juega
va
ustedes, ellos, ellas
juegan
van
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PRESENT TENSE OF VERBS
B
In the following sentences, draw a straight line under a regular verb and a dashed
line under an irregular verb. Then circle the ending of each verb.
1. Los fines de semana yo alquilo videos. ¿Y tú?
2. Yo bailo en las fiestas y paso el rato con mis amigos.
3. Mi mejor amiga monta en bicicleta todos los días.
4. Ustedes juegan al fútbol y tocan el piano también.
5. Mi hermano y yo cantamos en casa.
6. Mis hermanos van al parque y pasean.
7. Yo hablo por teléfono contigo.
8. Tú vas a la piscina y nadas por las tardes.
C
Complete the sentences with the correct form of the verbs in parentheses.
1. Cuando hace buen tiempo, nosotros practicamos (practicar) deportes.
2. Yo
(montar) en bicicleta.
3. Tú y tu hermano
4. Tú también
5. Marisa
(jugar) al béisbol.
(ir) a la playa y
(patinar) en el parque.
6. Cuando hace mal tiempo, nosotros
7. Tú
8. Mi madre
rato sola.
(dibujar) y yo
11. Tú y yo
D
(estudiar) en casa.
(alquilar) videos.
(escuchar) música y
9. Mis hermanos
(tocar) el piano.
10. Yo siempre
(nadar).
(pasar) el
(jugar) a ajedrez, y ustedes
(hablar) por teléfono contigo.
(ir) al parque y
(jugar) al tenis.
Compare the following Spanish sentences.
a. Tú estudias por la mañana y descansas por la tarde.
b. Usted quiere salir con Juana. Toca el piano muy bien.
What is the subject of descansas in a?
What is the subject of toca in b? Why is it unclear?
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Indefinite articles; ¿cuánto?, mucho, poco
4
In English Indefinite articles introduce non-specific nouns. The indefinite
articles for singular nouns are a and an. For plural nouns, the words some and
a few are used.
I need a backpack for school.
Maria brings an eraser to class.
I found some books.
I still have a few exams left.
To talk about the quantity of things, we use the question words how much (if
you cannot count the noun) and how many (when the noun can be counted).
How much homework is there?
There is much/a lot of/little homework.
How many books are there?
There are many/a lot of/few books.
A
Underline the indefinite articles or quantity adjectives in the following
sentences and circle the nouns they introduce.
1. We all have a hard test tomorrow.
2. There is little time to lose and much material to study.
3. How much paper do you need for the test?
4. Bart needs a lot of time to study.
5. Ricardo has many colored pens.
6. Monica wants a few black markers.
7. Andy has an eraser on the desk.
8. How many students will take the test?
In Spanish The indefinite articles un and una are used to say a or an (or
the number one) before a singular noun, while unos and unas are used to say
some or a few before a plural noun. The form you use depends on the noun that
follows: the indefinite article must agree with the noun in number and gender.
Masculine
Feminine
SINGULAR un lápiz
una carpeta
PLURAL
unos lápices
unas carpetas
Tengo unos zapatos y una regla.
To talk about amounts or quantities, we use ¿cuánto?, mucho, and poco,
which also agree with the noun they describe in number and gender.
Masculine
Feminine
SINGULAR ¿Cuánto papel tienes?
¿Cuánta tarea tienes?
Tengo mucho/poco papel.
Tengo mucha/poca tarea.
PLURAL
¿Cuántos lápices tienes?
¿Cuántas carpetas tienes?
Tengo muchos/pocos lápices. Tengo muchas/pocas carpetas.
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4
INDEFINITE ARTICLES; ¿CUÁNTO?, MUCHO, POCO
B
Underline the indefinite articles or quantity adjectives in the following
sentences and circle the nouns they introduce. Then, indicate whether the noun
is singular (S) or plural (P), and masculine (M) or feminine (F).
M
F
S
✓
1. ¿Cuántas clases tienes?
P
✓
2. Tengo unas materias fáciles.
3. Tienes poca tarea.
4. Necesitas muchos lápices.
5. ¿Cuántos profesores tienes?
6. No quiero un cuaderno verde.
7. Martica necesita una calculadora.
C
Complete the following conversation with the correct form of the indefinite
article (un, una, unos, unas), or a quantity word (cuánto, mucho, poco).
Juan
María
Juan
María
Juan
María
Juan
María
Juan
María
Juan
D
¿ Cuántas
cosas tienes en tu mochila?
Tengo (1)
diccionario para (2)
clase fácil.
¿Tienes (3)
clases?
No, tengo (4)
clases: sólo (only) dos.
¿Necesitas (5)
útiles escolares?
Sí, necesito papel y (6)
libros.
¿(7)
papel necesitas? ¿y (8)
libros?
Necesito (9)
cuadernos (¡catorce!)
¿Tienes (10)
lápices y reglas para la clase de arte?
Sí, tengo (11)
lápices, y (12)
regla.
También tengo (13)
zapatos y (14)
ropa:
¡un montón!
Compare the translation of una in these sentences.
a. —¿Cuántas reglas tienes? —Tengo una regla. (I only have one ruler.)
b. —¿Qué necesitas? —Necesito una regla. (I need a ruler.)
What do you notice about una in spite of the difference in meaning?
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Ir a with infinitives
In English To talk about the near future, or what someone is going to do, we
use a present tense form of the verb to be followed by going to and an infinitive. To be going to acts as an auxiliary verb.
I am going to buy some clothes.
We are going to study for the test this afternoon.
Elizabeth is going to run for an hour.
A
Circle the subject and underline the form of be going to + infinitive in the
following sentences.
1. We are going to plan our next vacation.
2. Edward is going to search the Internet.
3. My sisters are going to look into hotels.
4. My parents are going to pay for the whole thing.
5. You are going to come with us, right?
6. We are going to leave in three weeks.
7. I am going to have a great time.
In Spanish To talk about what someone is or isn’t going to do in the near
future, use the present tense of ir with a followed by an infinitive.
¿Qué vas a hacer?
Voy a comer fruta.
¿Van a salir ustedes?
Sí, vamos a ir al cine.
B
Circle the subject, if it is given, and underline the form of ir a + infinitive in
the following sentences.
1. Vamos a tener un examen mañana.
2. ¿Cuándo van a estudiar ustedes?
3. Después de clases, vamos a practicar deportes.
4. Primero voy a nadar en la piscina.
5. Mi hermana va a montar en bicicleta.
6. Después, mi madre y yo vamos a preparar la comida.
7. Mis padres van a ver televisión.
8. Nosotras vamos a hacer la tarea.
9. Muchos estudiantes van a pasar el rato con sus libros.
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4
IR A WITH INFINITIVES
C
Complete the sentences expressing what the following people are going to do on
each day of the week.
vamos a hacer muchas cosas.
1. Esta semana, nosotros ___________________________________________
2. El lunes, yo ____________________________________________________
3. El martes, mis amigos ___________________________________________
4. El miércoles, tú _________________________________________________
5. El jueves, todos nosotros _________________________________________
6. El viernes, mi mejor amiga _______________________________________
7. El fin de semana, mis amigos y yo __________________________________
8. El sábado, la profesora ___________________________________________
9. El domingo, mis padres y yo ______________________________________
10. La próxima semana, yo __________________________________________
D
Answer the following questions negatively. Use ir a + infinitive in your answer.
1. ¿Practicas mucho español?
No, pero voy a practicar mucho este fin de semana.
______________________________________________________________
2. ¿Traes muchos libros hoy?
______________________________________________________________
3. ¿Sabes mucho de arte?
______________________________________________________________
4. ¿Tu mejor amigo ve mucha televisión?
______________________________________________________________
5. ¿Tu hermana escribe muchas cartas?
______________________________________________________________
6. ¿Tú y tus amigos ponen muchas cosas en las mochilas?
______________________________________________________________
E
Can ir a be followed by the verb ir itself? And by the verb venir? Write two
sentences using these combinations, and write their English translation.
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4
Tag questions
In English Certain words or phrases may be added at the end of a sentence to
make it a question. These words or phrases, called tag questions, include isn’t
it, right, and don’t you. You expect the answer to confirm what you were
thinking.
He is going to the movies tonight, right?
The final game is tonight, isn’t it?
You know the truth, don’t you?
A
Circle the tag questions in the following sentences.
1. You have a date for tomorrow, don’t you? .
2. This chess board is yours, isn’t it?
3. You’re coming with us, right?
4. You locked the door, didn’t you?
5. You are fifteen years old, aren’t you?
6. Monica and Sebastian went to the supermarket, didn’t they?
7. Martina is winning the game, isn’t she?
8. We have to leave soon, don’t we?
In Spanish Tag questions may also be attached at the end of a sentence. The
most common tag questions are ¿no? and ¿verdad? Verdad is used for
questions that include the word “no”.
La clase de matemáticas es interesante, ¿verdad?
Te gustan los videojuegos, ¿no?
B
Circle the tag questions in the following sentences.
1. Te gusta la novela, ¿verdad?
2. Tu madre es muy atlética, ¿no?
3. Tienes seis clases, ¿verdad?
4. Vas a comer con nosotras, ¿no?
5. Quieres nadar en la piscina, ¿no?
6. Necesitas muchas cosas para tus clases, ¿verdad?
7. Este fin de semana hay partido de béisbol, ¿no?
8. Pasado mañana vamos al concierto, ¿verdad?
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4
TAG QUESTIONS
C
Change the following sentences to questions using tag questions.
1. Tú quieres ir al concierto en el auditorio.
Tú quieres ir al concierto en el auditorio, ¿verdad?
______________________________________________________________
2. Vamos al partido de básquetbol.
______________________________________________________________
3. Mi amiga va a ir a una clase de baile.
______________________________________________________________
4. Quieren comer en un buen restaurante.
______________________________________________________________
5. Hay muchos planes para el fin de semana.
______________________________________________________________
6. Tu hermano no va a hacer ejercicio.
______________________________________________________________
7. Practicamos deportes esta semana.
______________________________________________________________
8. Tú no tienes clase de arte.
______________________________________________________________
9. El arte es tu materia preferida.
______________________________________________________________
D
Consider the pairs of sentences below.
a. ¿La química es fácil?
b. La química es fácil, ¿verdad?
Is chemistry easy?
Chemistry is easy, isn’t it?
How do tag questions change the tone of the question? Is there a difference in the
sort of answer you would expect in each case?
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5
Possessive adjectives
In English Possessive adjectives (my, your, his, her, our and their) show
ownership or relationship between people. They do not change forms, regardless
of whether they modify singular or plural nouns. The distinction between his,
her and their tells us whether something belongs to a male or female, or to
more than one person.
My books are more expensive than my backpack.
Your uncle is taller than our uncle.
My sister Susan drives to school in her car.
Sam eats dinner with his grandparents. Their house is nearby.
A
Complete the sentences with the possessive adjectives that go with the underlined
people.
1. Miss Garza set
her
books down on the desk.
2. My parents have
25th wedding anniversary tomorrow!
3. Did you say that
brothers were students here too?
4. Marisa says that
science teacher is brilliant.
5. The boys left
backpacks on the playground.
6. I just stopped by to say hello to
uncle.
family, Luke has blue eyes.
7. Like everyone else in
8. Petra and Cristina are both shy, but
brother is outgoing.
In Spanish Possessive adjectives include mi(s), tu(s), su(s), nuestro/a(s)
and vuestro/a(s). The same word su(s) is used to mean his, her, their and your
(plural). The context usually makes the meaning clear.
Nuestros amigos están en nuestra casa.
Jaime vive con su hermano en casa de sus abuelos.
Sofía trabaja en su oficina con sus compañeros.
While the root of a possessive adjective refers to the owner, the ending must
agree in gender and number with the noun that comes after it.
La señora Lacôuture habla francés con sus hijas.
Comemos en casa de mis abuelos todos los domingos.
Pedro y yo traemos a nuestros hermanos de la escuela.
¡Vuestra casa es muy bonita!
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POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES
B
Underline the possessive adjective and circle the noun it describes. Then indicate
whether the noun is singular (S) or plural (P), masculine (M) or feminine (F).
M
F
S
P
1. En mi familia somos siete personas.
✓
✓
2. Roberto baila con sus amigas.
3. Venimos de la casa de nuestro primo.
4. Veo a tus abuelos en el parque.
5. Hay mucha comida en nuestra mesa.
6. ¿Tienen ustedes aquí su clase de ciencias?
7. Los padres hacen mucho por sus hijos.
8. Nuestras materias no son fáciles.
C
Write a sentence saying where these people work or where they are right now.
1. La esposa de Paco
Su esposa trabaja en el restaurante.
2. El abuelo de nosotras
3. El mejor amigo de mis padres
4. Las profesoras de nosotros
5. El hermano mayor de ustedes
6. Las hijas de Celia
D
Compare the following sentences.
a. Sus hijos son altos.
b. Su hija es bonita.
Your sons are tall.
Their daughter is pretty.
When might you have to clarify who the possessive adjective refers to in Spanish?
What about in English? Explain.
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Estar with prepositions
In English The verb to be can be used to talk about location.
Prepositions show where something or someone is in relation to something
else. Some prepositions are made up of more than one word.
Our apartment is in a big building.
The cat is under the table.
Those two cities are far from here.
A
Circle the verb to be in each sentence, and underline the preposition that indicates location.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Dave’s bedroom is over the kitchen.
My shoes are under the sofa.
Our town is near a big city.
My books are on the dining room table.
My father’s garden is behind the garage.
The gym and the swimming pool are next to the library.
In Spanish The verb estar (to be) can be used to say where someone or something is. Estar is an irregular verb.
yo
estoy
nosostros(as)
estamos
tú
estás
vosotros(as)
estáis
Ud., él, ella
está
Uds., ellos, ellas
están
The verb estar is also used with prepositions to say where something or
someone is in relation to something else.
El gato está debajo de la silla.
El libro está encima de la mesa.
Estamos delante del cine.
Los dos restaurantes están cerca de la escuela.
Su casa está al lado de un parque.
B
Circle the verb estar in each sentence, and underline the preposition that indicates location.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Sacramento está en California.
El pueblo de mis primos está lejos de la ciudad.
La casa de mis primos está delante de la iglesia.
Sus habitaciones están encima del garaje.
Nuestra casa está en las afueras de la ciudad.
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5
ESTAR WITH PREPOSITIONS
6. Estamos muy cerca del campo.
7. Nuestro jardín es grande, y está detrás de la casa.
8. Tenemos un patio pequeño, y está al lado del jardín.
C
Tell where each of these things or people are in your house with respect to
another thing. Use a different preposition for each sentence.
1. mi padre
Mi padre está en el garaje.
2. el baño
3. mi mochila
4. los cuadernos
5. las plantas
6. mis hermanos
D
Express the opposite of these sentences by using a different preposition.
1. El comedor está debajo de la habitación.
El comedor está encima de la habitación.
2. El gimnasio está cerca del auditorio.
3. La piscina está detrás del estadio.
E
1. Translate the following sentences.
a. My aunt is smart. _______________________________________________
b. She is in the kitchen. _____________________________________________
2. How did you translate is in each case? How did you know which verb to use?
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Nombre
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5
Negation
In English Several different words can be used to make negative sentences, such
as no, not, never, nobody, nothing, none, neither, no one, and so on.
I never wake up so late.
Nobody comes to school on Saturdays.
Nothing is more important to me than music.
I am not going to buy anything.
Two negative words cannot be combined to form a negation in English.
INCORRECT: Nobody did not call today.
CORRECT: Nobody called today.
A
Circle the negative words in each sentence.
1. I never go swimming in the evenings.
2. I have not seen anybody around today.
3. I am hungry because I ate nothing this morning.
4. Nobody comes around here anymore.
5. There is nothing to do at my house.
6. I am not going to watch any movies tonight.
In Spanish Several different words can also be used to make negative sentences,
such as no (not), nunca (never), and tampoco (neither, not either). Nunca and
tampoco can take the place of no before the verb, or they can come at the end of
a sentence that already has no.
Nunca como chocolate. = No como chocolate nunca. I never eat chocolate.
Tampoco como helado, = No como helado tampoco. I don’t eat chocolate
either.
The word nada can mean nothing and the word nadie can mean nobody when
either one comes before the verb. If they come after the verb, however, the word
no must go before the verb. In that case, nada is translated as not anything and
nadie as not anybody.
Nada es fácil.
Nothing is easy.
Nadie puede ir al cine.
Nobody can go to the movies.
No quiero beber nada ahora.
I don’t want to drink anything now.
No hay nadie en casa.
There isn’t anybody at home.
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5
NEGATION
B
Circle the negative word or words in each sentence.
1. Esteban nunca va a la playa.
2. Tampoco le gusta ir al cine.
3. Nadie sabe qué le gusta hacer.
4. No baila nunca en las fiestas.
5. No come con nadie.
6. Nunca hace la tarea.
7. Pero nada es difícil para él: nunca tiene problemas en clase.
8. Parece que no le gusta nada. Pero es muy inteligente y simpático.
C
Rewrite the following sentences about school life using the word no.
1. Nunca jugamos a fútbol en la escuela.
No
jugamos a fútbol en la escuela nunca.
______________________________________________________________
2. Nunca necesito un violín para la clase de matemáticas.
______________________________________________________________
3. Tampoco tengo un escritorio en el gimnasio.
______________________________________________________________
4. Nada empieza tarde en nuestra escuela.
______________________________________________________________
5. En mi familia nadie duerme más de ocho horas.
______________________________________________________________
6. Tampoco yo duermo mucho.
______________________________________________________________
D
Compare these sentences:
a. No voy a hacer nada.
b. No quiero nada de ti.
I’m not going to do anything.
I want nothing from you.
What is the translation of not anything? and of nothing? Why does Spanish
use no in sentence b? Does it have to do with the position of nada?
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Nombre
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6
Ser and estar
In English There is only one verb that means to be. It can be used both to say
how something normally tastes, looks, or feels, and also to comment on how
something tastes, looks, or feels at a specific time:
Italian ice-cream is very good.
(General nature of a kind of ice-cream)
This ice-cream is great.
(Specific quality of this ice-cream)
To be is used to say where something or somebody is, and to say how people are
doing. We also use to be to identify people, to say where they are from, to
describe what somebody is like, and to give the day, date, and time.
Now that the dishes are in the kitchen, I’m happy.
Jorge is my friend. He is from Mexico. He is short and friendly.
Today is Monday. It is October 24. It is now ten in the morning.
A
Circle the form of the verb to be in each sentence. Then indicate whether it
describes a specific quality (S) or the general nature (G) of something.
S
G
1. Sofrito is a spicy Cuban dish.
✓
2. My mom’s sofrito is very spicy.
3. Apples are good for your health.
4. This apple is rotten.
5. Orange roughy is my favorite fish.
6. This fish is fresh.
7. How is your meal?
8. Peppers in Spain are mild.
In Spanish There are two Spanish verbs that mean to be: ser and estar. We use
estar to talk about variable qualities, such as how something looks, tastes or feels.
Ser is used to describe the general nature of something.
El helado italiano es muy bueno.
(General nature of that ice-cream)
Este helado está riquísimo.
(Specific quality of one ice-cream)
Estar is also used to say where something or someone is, and to say how someone
feels. Ser is used for identification: defining people and things, saying what they
are like, saying where they are from, and giving the day, date and time.
—¿Cómo estás? —No estoy bien porque mi padre está lejos de aquí.
—Sonia es mi profesora. Es baja y simpática. Es de Seattle.
—Son las ocho de la tarde. Hoy es lunes, y es el 21 de octubre.
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Nombre
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6
SER AND ESTAR
B
Circle the form of ser or estar in each sentence. Then indicate whether it
describes a specific quality (S) or the general nature (G) of something.
S
G
1. El gazpacho es una sopa fría de España.
✓
2. Tu sopa no está caliente.
3. La salsa de Perú es muy picante.
4. Esta salsa está riquísima.
5. Las papas fritas están saladas.
6. Este jugo de naranja no está frío.
7. No me gusta el atún. Es muy salado.
C
For each of these situations, write a complete sentence using the correct form of
ser or estar. Then say whether it is a specific or general quality of the food.
1. tell your mother that the sweet roll is delicious (el pan dulce/delicioso)
El pan dulce está delicioso. Specific
______________________________________________________________
2. say that locro is an Ecuadorean dish (locro/plato de Ecuador)
______________________________________________________________
3. say that the soup is hot (la sopa/caliente)
______________________________________________________________
4. tell Rosaura that Mexican food is spicy (la comida mexicana/picante)
______________________________________________________________
5. say that the ham is very salty (el jamón/salado)
______________________________________________________________
D
Circle the correct verb to complete each sentence.
Me llamo Andrew. Tengo quince años. (Soy/Estoy) estadounidense, pero mis
padres (son/están) colombianos. Vivo en San José, California. Mi casa (es/está) en
la avenida Washington. (Es/está) una casa grande. Yo (soy/estoy) jugador de básquetbol. Hoy (soy/estoy) bien porque no tengo clase. Mis clases (son/están)
interesantes, y yo (soy/estoy) un estudiante muy intelectual. Mi hermana se llama
Matilda. Hoy (es/está) jueves. Ahora (son/están) las siete, y ella (es/está) en su
clase de baile. Su profesora (es/está) de Venezuela. Ellos bailan muy bien, y
después comen arepas. Las arepas (son/están) una comida venezolana y colombiana. Yo (soy/estoy) muy atlético, pero bailo mal. Pero me gusta comer, y ahora
como arepas también: estas arepas de mi madre (son/están) riquísimas.
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Nombre
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CAPÍTULO
6
Direct object pronouns
In English A direct object is a person or thing receiving the action of the verb.
I sent you a novel. (a novel answers the question What did I send you?)
She took Peter home.(Peter answers the question Who did she take home?)
Direct object pronouns can also be used to avoid repeating nouns that have
already been mentioned. Singular forms are me, you, him, her, and it. Plural
forms are us, you and them.
I sent you my first novel. You never read it, did you?
Mom took Peter to school and picked him up afterwards.
I wanted to see two movies, but my friend had already seen them.
A
Circle the direct object pronoun and underline the noun it refers to.
1. I saw that film, and enjoyed it immensely.
2. They were not using their mountain bikes, so they sold them.
3. I met your sister at the game. I had never met her before.
4. I bought an apple for later, but I ate it immediately.
5. Do you like these flowers? I bought them for my mom.
6. If you are interested in this boardgame, I can lend it to you.
7. Do you know Russell? Let me introduce him to you!
In Spanish Direct object pronouns are also used to refer to someone or
something that receives the action of the verb. These pronouns must agree with the
nouns they stand for. For third person objects we have the following pronouns:
SINGULAR
PLURAL
MASCULINE
lo
him, it
los
them
FEMININE
la
her, it
las
them
Direct object pronouns usually go before the conjugated verb. If an infinitive follows the conjugated verb, the pronoun can either go before the conjugated verb
or be attached to the end of the infinitive.
¿Quién pone la mesa?
Mi hermana la pone.
Mi hermano las va a hacer.
¿Quién va a hacer las camas?
Mi hermano va a hacerlas.
{
B
Circle the direct object pronoun and underline the noun it refers to.
1. La torta está deliciosa. La quiero probar.
2. En el restaurante ustedes piden espinacas. No las pueden preparar en casa.
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Nombre
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6
DIRECT OBJECT PRONOUNS
3. La ensalada está en la mesa. La voy a servir.
4. Andrés está en la cocina. Lo veo.
5. Me encantan los cereales, pero prefiero comerlos por la noche.
6. Mi madre sirve café con leche por las mañanas. Casi siempre lo bebemos.
7. Tu sopa no está caliente. Tienes que calentarla.
C
Answer the following questions using direct object pronouns. When there is an
infinitive, answer in two ways by changing the position of the direct object
pronoun.
1. ¿Quieres ver la película de misterio?
Sí, la quiero ver. / Sí, quiero verla.
______________________________________________________________
2. ¿Vas a cenar comida picante antes?
______________________________________________________________
3. ¿Siempre pides pescado en la cafetería?
______________________________________________________________
4. ¿Tienes que comer el postre también?
______________________________________________________________
5. ¿Vas a tomar refrescos?
______________________________________________________________
6. ¿Podemos alquilar dos películas?
______________________________________________________________
D
Fill in the following chart with the direct object pronouns, in Spanish and
English, that you would use instead of the nouns in the first column.
Spanish
English
Mario
Gloria
el libro / the book
la leche / the milk
Mario y Gloria
Gloria y María
los pasteles / the cakes
las naranjas / the oranges
What is the main difference between direct object pronouns in the two languages? In Spanish, what do you need to know and keep in mind?
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6
Affirmative informal commands
In English All affirmative commands are formed by using the infinitive form of
a verb, without the word to. There are no irregular commands in English.
Eat your vegetables!
Please stop yelling!
Be nice!
When a direct object pronoun is included in the sentence, it follows the verb.
Here is your key. Keep it safe.
I’m very interested in your paintings. Show them to me some day.
A
Circle the verbs that express commands. Underline the direct object
pronoun if there is one.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
You left your umbrella here. Please take it with you.
Here is your apple. Cut it into pieces before eating it.
It’s raining. Drive carefully.
You’re so nervous. Calm down!
I fried these plantains for us. Try them!
The air conditioning is off. Please turn it on.
You’re friends. Forgive and forget!
Please turn down the radio, it’s very loud.
In Spanish Informal commands are used to tell a friend or relative (someone you address as tú) to do something. Affirmative informal commands are
formed by taking the tú form of the present tense and dropping the final –s.
➔
calienta
Calienta la leche.
calientas
comes
➔
come
Come las espinacas.
Some verbs have irregular affirmative informal command forms.
tener ➔
ten
ir
➔
ve
hacer ➔ haz
venir ➔
ven
ser
➔
sé
salir ➔ sal
poner ➔
pon
decir ➔
di
When you use a pronoun with an affirmative informal command, attach it to the
end of the verb. The stressed vowel of the verb will then have an accent mark,
unless the verb is only one syllable long.
¿Abro el libro?
Sí, ábrelo.
¿Cuándo hago las camas?
Hazlas ahora.
B
Circle the command forms. Underline the direct object pronoun, if there is one.
1. La torta está deliciosa. Pruébala.
2. Las zanahorias están en el refrigerador. Sácalas y ponlas en la mesa.
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Nombre
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6
AFFIRMATIVE INFORMAL COMMANDS
3. Mañana tenemos examen. Estudia mucho.
4. Pascual tiene partido de fútbol. Llévalo al partido.
5. Tus tíos están de visita. Habla con ellos.
6. Es muy tarde. Ve a la cama y duerme.
7. Quisiera unos cereales. Sírvelos en el plato hondo.
8. Sal de casa y ven al parque conmigo.
C
Your friend is asking you for advice. Answer the following questions using an
affirmative command. Use a direct object pronoun when appropriate.
1. ¿Puedo tomar leche?
Sí, tómala.
______________________________________________________________
2. ¿Debo salir de mi cuarto?
______________________________________________________________
3. ¿Hago el desayuno?
______________________________________________________________
4. ¿Puedo preparar los huevos?
______________________________________________________________
5. ¿Debo añadir tocino?
______________________________________________________________
6. ¿Pongo las servilletas en la mesa?
______________________________________________________________
D
Compare the following paragraphs.
Nos gustan las papas al horno. Las comemos todas las semanas. Las
podemos comer hoy también. ¿Quieres comerlas? Aquí tienes unas papas.
Ponlas en el plato y cómelas.
We like baked potatoes. We eat them every week. We can eat them today,
too. Do you want to eat them? Here are some potatoes. Put them on the
plate and eat them.
Where does the Spanish direct object pronoun go when the verb is conjugated?
What happens with affirmative commands? What if there is an infinitive? Does it
work the same way in English?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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Verbs with reflexive pronouns
7
In English A reflexive pronoun can be used to show that the subject acts
upon itself. The reflexive pronouns are myself, yourself, himself, herself,
itself, ourselves, yourselves, and themselves.
He bathes himself.
I made myself some dinner.
The children dress themselves for school.
A
Circle the reflexive pronoun and the subject it refers to. Underline the verb.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
I drag myself out of bed at 5 AM!
You cut yourself on the glass?
The cat cleans itself.
We admire ourselves in the mirror.
Babies cannot feed themselves.
You found yourselves a new hobby.
She treated herself to ice cream after finishing the race.
He bought himself a CD at the store.
In Spanish Reflexive pronouns can also be used when the subject and object
of a verb are the same. The infinitive of a reflexive verb always contains se:
bañarse. When you conjugate a reflexive verb, the reflexive pronoun changes to
match the subject of the verb.
yo
me baño
nosotros(as)
nos bañamos
tú
te bañas
vosotros(as)
os bañáis
usted, él, ella
se baña
ustedes, ellos, ellas
se bañan
Reflexive pronouns either go before the conjugated verb, or are attached to the
end of an infinitive. With affirmative informal commands, they must be
attached to the end of the verb. When using a reflexive verb with a body part or
clothing, use a definite article instead of a posessive adjective.
¿Me lavo las manos?
Sí, lávate las manos.
Nos tenemos que vestir.
¿Vamos a vestirnos ahora?
B
Circle the reflexive pronoun and the subject it refers to, if it is given. Underline
the reflexive verb.
1. Por la mañana, yo me despierto a las seis y media.
2. Mi hermana se levanta más tarde.
3. Ella y yo nos vestimos después de desayunar.
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7
VERBS WITH REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
4. Mi padre se afeita por la mañana.
5. Mi madre se lava la cara y las manos.
6. Tú tienes que peinarte todas las mañanas.
7. Mis hermanas siempre quieren maquillarse.
8. Niño, lávate los dientes antes de salir de casa.
C
Complete the sentences with the correct form of each reflexive verb in parentheses.
1. Normalmente yo
me acuesto
a las diez y media. (acostarse)
2. Mis hermanos
a la misma hora. (acostarse)
3. Todos nosotros
para ir a la cama a las diez. (prepararse)
4. Yo
el piyama antes de leer un rato. (ponerse)
5. Leo en la cama porque necesito
(relajarse).
6. Mi hermano mayor
la ropa y luego
los dientes. (quitarse, lavarse)
7. Mi hermana menor
y luego
el pelo. (bañarse, secarse)
8. Nadie quiere
ni (=or)
por
la noche. (afeitarse, maquillarse)
9. Tú siempre tienes que
antes de acostarte. (estirarse)
10. Es porque tú quieres
D
en forma. (mantenerse)
In Spanish you can often use the same verb with a reflexive pronoun or with a direct
object pronoun. For the subjects given below, write two sentences with the same verb:
one with a reflexive pronoun and one with a direct object pronoun.
1. yo / lavarse la cara / lavar el carro
2. tú / ponerse el piyama / poner la mesa
3. ella / levantarse / levantar pesas
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Nombre
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CAPÍTULO
7
Negative informal commands
In English An affirmative command tells someone to do something. It is
formed by using the infinitive form of the verb (but without the word to). A
negative command tells someone what not to do. You form a negative command by placing the word(s) don’t or do not before the command. Pronouns
always go after.
Eat your meal.
Talk to your uncle.
Wake yourself up.
A
Don’t eat so much.
Do not talk in class.
The coffee is cold. Don’t drink it.
Circle the verbs that express commands. Then indicate whether the command is
affirmative or negative.
Affirmative Negative
1. If you go to the gym, don’t forget your ID.
✓
2. Be quiet! The teacher is talking.
3. I’m bored. Please take me home.
4. We are inside a building. Don’t smoke!
5. I like this show. Don’t turn it off!
6. Do not step on the grass. It’s wet.
7. Please tell me the truth.
8. Don’t go to the movies tonight.
In Spanish Negative informal commands are used to tell a friend or relative (someone you address as tú) not to do something. Use the word no followed
by the verb form. For most –ar verbs, you form this command by dropping the
final –o of the yo form, and adding –es. For most –er and –ir verbs, you also drop
the final –o of the yo form, and add –as.
–ar verbs:
–er verbs:
–ir verbs:
(yo) trabajo
(yo) corro
(yo) salgo
(yo) duermo
➔
➔
➔
➔
¡No trabajes!
¡No corras!
!No salgas!
¡No duermas!
Don’t work!
Don’t run!
Don’t go out!
Don’t sleep!
These verbs have irregular negative informal commands.
dar ➔ no des
ir ➔ no vayas
ser ➔ no seas
A pronoun in a negative command must go between no and the verb.
Lee esta novela. Pero no la leas en la cama y no te acuestes muy tarde.
Read this novel. But don’t read it in bed, and don’t go to bed too late.
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7
NEGATIVE INFORMAL COMMANDS
B
Circle the verbs that express commands. Then indicate whether the command is
affirmative or negative.
Affirmative Negative
✓
1. No duermas hasta las doce.
2. No trabajes demasiado.
3. Haz tu tarea todos los días.
4. Despiértate temprano.
5. No seas malo con tus compañeros de clase.
6. No vayas mucho al centro comercial.
7. Prepárate bien para los exámenes.
8. No leas novelas cuando hay examen.
C
A friend is coming to stay at your house for a month. Use the information provided to make up a list of house rules for him or her. Use pronouns if needed.
1. no comer en la sala y no fumar en ninguna parte
No comas en la sala y no fumes en ninguna parte.
______________________________________________________________
2. ver televisión todo el día
______________________________________________________________
3. ser muy perezoso(a) con los quehaceres
______________________________________________________________
4. acostarse muy tarde
______________________________________________________________
5. dormir hasta las once los fines de semana
______________________________________________________________
6. poner la música muy alto
______________________________________________________________
D
How do reflexive and direct object pronouns change position in affirmative and
negative commands in Spanish? Where do these pronouns go in English?
a. Quítate los zapatos y ponlos en tu habitación.
Take off your shoes and put them in your room.
b. No te pongas los zapatos. No los lleves a la cocina.
Don’t put on your shoes. Don’t wear them into the kitchen.
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Demonstrative adjectives and
comparisons
CAPÍTULO
8
In English Demonstrative adjectives point out people and things. They
must agree in number with the nouns they refer to. We use this and these for
things that are nearby, and that and those for things that are further away.
SINGULAR
PLURAL
this I like this shirt.
these Do you like these shirts?
that I need that book.
those He wants those notebooks.
The following formulas are used to make comparisons with adjectives:
adjective + -er than
She is taller than me.
more + adjective + than
He is more intelligent than Gunther.
less + adjective + than
Roberta is less careful than Monica.
as + adjective + as
That tree is as tall as our house.
The adjective + -er than formula is generally used when the adjective is only one
syllable long. (quicker than, lighter than, stronger than).
A
Circle the demonstrative adjective and indicate whether it is singular or plural.
Also underline the phrase that expresses the comparison.
Plural
Singular
1. This movie is longer than Ben-Hur.
✓
2. That shirt is more expensive than mine.
3. Those men are as rich as the Vanderbilts.
4. That kid is smarter than Einstein!
5. My backpack is as heavy as those dumbells.
6. This dress is less stylish than that skirt.
7. You’re as crazy as that March hare.
In Spanish Demonstrative adjectives also point out people and things.
They must agree in number and gender with the nouns they describe. We use forms
of este for things that are nearby, and forms of ese for things that are further away.
SINGULAR
PLURAL
este/esta
this
estos/estas these
ese/esa
that
esos/esas
those
¿Te gustan estos zapatos, o prefieres esas sandalias?
Use these expressions to compare things with adjectives. The adjective agrees in
gender and number with the first noun in the comparison.
más + adjective + que
Ella es más lista que yo.
menos + adjective + que
Pedro es menos fuerte que Sansón.
tan + adjective + como
Esas chicas son tan altas como tú.
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Nombre
Clase
Fecha
CAPÍTULO
8
DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES AND COMPARISONS
B
Circle the demonstrative adjective and indicate whether it is singular (S) or plural
(P), masculine (M) or feminine (F). Underline the phrase expressing comparison.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
C
S, F
Esa blusa es más pequeña que mi camisa.
Estos calcetines son tan largos como esos calcetines.
Mi vestido es menos bonito que ese vestido azul.
Tu chaqueta de cuero es más cara que esa chaqueta.
Esos pantalones cortos son más feos que tus pantalones cortos.
Ese sombrero está menos pasado de moda que otros.
Esta falda de algodón es menos corta que una minifalda.
Make sentences with these words and using all of the different comparison
formulas. Be sure that the demonstrative adjectives agree with the nouns.
1. Este / profesora joven / estricto / ese/ profesor mayor
Esta profesora joven es más estricta que ese profesor mayor.
______________________________________________________________
2. Ese / profesores / serio / este / estudiantes
______________________________________________________________
3. Este / clase / divertido / ese / fiesta
______________________________________________________________
4. Este / camisa blanca / bonito / ese / camisa de rayas
______________________________________________________________
5. Ese / aretes / barato / este / collar
______________________________________________________________
6. Este / diccionario / interesante / ese / novela
______________________________________________________________
7. Ese / calcetines de seda / caro / este / bufanda de lana
______________________________________________________________
D
1. Explain the difference in meaning between the following sentences:
Este zapato es de cuero. __________________________________________
Ese zapato es de cuero.
__________________________________________
2. Do you have trouble telling the demonstratives apart? This saying might help:
This and these have Ts;
that and those don’t.
this
that
esTe
ese
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these
those
esTos
esos
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Nombre
Clase
Fecha
CAPÍTULO
8
Preterite tense
In English The simple past tense expresses an action that already took place. For
regular verbs in English, the past tense is formed by adding –ed to the verb.
I
walked
we
walked
you
walked
you
walked
he, she, it
walked
they
walked
The past tense conjugation is the same for all persons . Some verbs, like to go,
are irregular in the past tense (went).
Martha played soccer yesterday. We went to the game but only watched.
A
Underline the verb in each sentence. Then indicate whether the verb is in the
present or past tense.
Present
Past
1. Marion worked at the ice cream stand.
✓
2. Edwin talked to Susana all afternoon.
3. You play racquetball with Arnulfo?
4. Marianne cleans her room every day.
5. They planted lots of pretty flowers.
6. I finished the book on Monday.
7. Gabriel lived in Cienfuegos for ten years.
8. My uncle fought in the war.
In Spanish The preterite tense, like the simple past tense in English, is used
to talk about what happened or what someone did at a specific point in the past. To
form the preterite of –ar verbs, attach these endings to the verb stem:
yo canté
nosotros(as) cantamos
tú cantaste
vosotros(as) cantasteis
usted, él, ella cantó
ustedes, ellos, ellas cantaron
The nosotros form of –ar verbs looks the same as in the present. The context
will help you decide whether it is present or past. Some verbs, like ir, are irregular. Stem-changing –ar verbs show no changes in the preterite.
yo fui
nosotros(as) fuimos
tú fuiste
vosotros(as) fuisteis
usted, él, ella fue
ustedes, ellos, ellas fueron
Tú me llamaste, y yo hablé contigo ayer.
Ellos fueron al centro comercial y encontraron un abrigo barato.
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Nombre
Clase
Fecha
CAPÍTULO
8
PRETERITE TENSE
B
Underline the verb in each sentence. Then indicate whether the verb is in the
present or preterite tense.
Present
Past
✓
1. Ignacio habló mucho en la clase.
2. Petra y su hermanito bailaron en la fiesta.
3. Yo lavo la ropa todos los días.
4. Te quedan muy bien esas sandalias.
5. Anteayer miré las vitrinas por la calle.
6. Esa chaqueta cuesta mucho dinero.
7. Tú gastaste cien dólares en ese anillo.
8. Nosotros cantamos muy bien ayer.
C
Pablo asks Leticia about several activities, and she tells him that they were done
yesterday. Fill in Leticia’s answers.
Pablo
Leticia
Pablo
Leticia
Pablo
Leticia
Pablo
Leticia
Pablo
Leticia
D
¿Tú paseas por el parque hoy?
No,
paseé por el parque ayer.
________________________________________________________
¿María cierra la tienda hoy?
________________________________________________________
¿Tus hermanos gastan mucho dinero en el cine hoy?
________________________________________________________
¿Yo llevo un suéter negro ahora?
________________________________________________________
¿Tú tomas un batido ahora mismo?
________________________________________________________
1. The accent marks in canté and cantó tell you which syllable to stress. Why is
this important? What if cantó had no accent mark?
2. Now write one sentence using preparó and another with preparo. Make
sure the person and the tense matches each form.
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Nombre
Clase
Fecha
CAPÍTULO
9
Personal a with direct object
In English Nouns The direct object is the noun that receives the action of the
verb. It answers the questions whom? or what? Thus, the recipient of the action can be
a person or a thing.
Who(m) did you see?
I saw Lucy and Jack at the store.
I know Lucy, I’d like to meet Jack. Who(m) do you know?
Who(m) would you like to meet?
They were buying a book.
What were they buying?
That store sells many things.
What does that store sell?
A
Underline the direct object. Then, tell whether it refers to a person or thing.
1. You wrote too many letters to him.
things
2. I took your brother to the game.
3. They took the trash out.
4. She picked me up at 8 PM..
5. I met that actress at a party.
6. We bought lots of presents for Mark.
7. He’s known that teacher since he was a kid.
8. Robert is athletic, and plays many sports.
In Spanish The direct object also receives the action of the verb. When the recipient of the action is a person, the word a comes before it. This a is called personal a,
meaning that it refers to a person as a direct object. It has no translation in English. To
ask a question about a direct object person, use a quién:
Who(m) did you see at the store?
—¿A quién viste en la tienda?
—Vi a Tere y a Jaime. ¿Los
I saw Tere and Jaime. Do you know
conoces?
them?
I know Tere, and I want to meet Jaime.
—Conozco a Tere, y quiero
conocer a Jaime.
When the recipient of the action is a thing, no a is needed. Notice that both people
and things are substituted by the same direct object pronouns: lo, la, los, las.
¿Ves esos restaurantes? Los
Do you see those restaurants? I know
conozco muy bien.
them very well.
—¿Conoces a mis amigos?
Do you know my friends?
—No, no los conozco.
No, I don’t know them.
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Nombre
Clase
Fecha
CAPÍTULO
9
PERSONAL A WITH DIRECT OBJECT
B
Underline the direct object. Then tell whether it refers to a person or thing.
person
1. Llevé a tu hermano al partido.
2. Escribiste muchas cartas.
3. Sacaron la basura.
4. Me llevó a casa a las ocho.
5. Conocí al abogado en la fiesta.
6. Compramos muchos regalos para Mark.
7. Conoce bien a ese profesor.
8. Roberto es atlético y practica muchos deportes.
C
A friend wants to know what you did and saw at the party on Friday. Answer
using the following as direct objects. Use personal a to refer to a person.
1. ¿Qué viste en la fiesta? ¿A quién viste? (decoraciones/gente)
Vi muchas decoraciones. También vi a mucha gente.
______________________________________________________________
2. ¿Qué llevaste? (una chaqueta negra)
______________________________________________________________
3. ¿ A quién llevaste contigo? (mi hermana)
______________________________________________________________
4. ¿Qué enseñaste? (fotos de mi graduación)
______________________________________________________________
5. ¿A quién conociste? (unos muchachos de la universidad)
______________________________________________________________
6. ¿A quién te presentaron? (un actor famoso)
______________________________________________________________
D
Compare the following sentences.
a. ¿Quién conoce a tu hermano?
Who knows your brother?
b. ¿A quién conoce tu hermano?
Who(m) does your brother know?
Without the personal a, how could you tell who was the subject and who was the
object? How can you tell in the English questions?
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Nombre
Clase
Fecha
CAPÍTULO
9
Present progressive
In English Nouns The present progressive is the verb tense used to talk
about what is happening right now. It is formed by combining the verb to be in the
present tense with the –ing form, or present participle, of the main verb.
We are reading this novel.
It is snowing.
It can also be used to talk about future events.
Tomorrow I’m leaving for Perú.
John is going next summer.
A
Change the tense in the following sentences from present to present progressive.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
I write letters. I am writing letters.
You watch the birds.
Cliff tells stories.
The sun shines.
She plays guitar.
We sing along.
In Spanish The present progressive also tells what is happening right now. It is
formed by combining a present form of estar with the present participle. The present
participle is formed by replacing –ar with –ando and –er or –ir with –iendo. For –er
and –ir verbs whose stem ends in a vowel, –iendo changes to –yendo.
hablar ➔ hablando
correr ➔ corriendo
interrumpir ➔ interrumpiendo
leer ➔ leyendo
—¿Qué estás tomando?
—Estoy bebiendo un vaso de leche.
The present participles of stem-changing –ir verbs change o ➔ u and e ➔ i.
dormir ➔ durmiendo
pedir ➔ pidiendo
Pronouns can go before the conjugated form of estar or be attached to the end of
the –ndo form. In the latter case, an accent mark must go over the stressed vowel.
—¿Estás sirviendo la cena?
—Sí, la estoy sirviendo. = Estoy sirviéndola.
—¿Estás afeitándote?
—Sí, me estoy afeitando. = Estoy afeitándome.
B
Change the tense in the following sentences from present to present progressive.
1. Pepita habla por teléfono.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Pepita está hablando por teléfono.
Se lavan las manos.
Yo me peino.
¿Vendes todos tus CDs?
Claudia los compra.
Joaquín duerme en la sala.
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Nombre
Clase
Fecha
CAPÍTULO
9
PRESENT PROGRESSIVE
C
Your best friend’s sick and can’t come to your birthday party, but is keeping on
top of it by instant messaging. Tell him or her what’s happening as it happens,
using the present progressive. Use direct object pronouns in your responses.
1. ¿Cuándo van ustedes a hacer los preparativos?
Los estamos haciendo ahora. / Estamos haciéndolos ahora.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
2. ¿Tu mamá va a preparar empanadas para la fiesta?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
3. ¿Todos están celebrando tu cumpleaños ahora?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
4. ¿Los invitados piden muchos pasteles en hoja?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
5. ¿Tu hermana y tú van a servir galletas?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
6. ¿No vas a leer las tarjetas de cumpleaños?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
7. ¿No vas a enseñar las fotos de la última fiesta?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
D
Compare the following Spanish and English sentences.
a. No puedo hablar contigo, estoy hablando por teléfono.
I can’t talk to you, I’m talking on the phone.
b. Mi madre viene esta noche. OR Mi madre va a venir esta noche.
My mother is coming this evening.
Why do you think Spanish doesn’t use the present progressive in sentence b?
What time does each set of sentences refer to: right now or a later time?
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