1. Healthcare

International Arachis Newsletter
Co-publishers
Peanut CRSP
Peanut Collaborative Research Support Program
(http://www.griffin.peachnet.edu/pnutcrsp.html)
About
ICRISAT
International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics
(http://www.icrisat.org)
Peanut C R S P
T h e Peanut C o l l a b o r a t i v e Research S u p p o r t P r o g r a m i s a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l p r o g r a m s u p p o r t e d b y U S A I D G r a n t L A G - G 0 0 - 9 6 - 0 0 0 1 3 - 0 0 t o T h e U n i v e r s i t y o f G e o r g i a . T h e research s u p p o r t e d seeks e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y s o u n d , sustainable
a g r i c u l t u r e p r o d u c t i o n and f o o d d e l i v e r y systems for peanut. T h e p r o g r a m has f i v e thrusts a d d r e s s i n g p r i o r i t y
constraints to the g l o b a l peanut i n d u s t r y ( a f l a t o x i n , p r o d u c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y , s o c i o - e c o n o m i c forces, postharvest processing,
a n d u t i l i z a t i o n ) . Peanut C R S P also w o r k s t o foster h u m a n resource d e v e l o p m e n t a n d the c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f research
results.
T h e Peanut C R S P p r o v i d e s s u p p o r t f o r c o l l a b o r a t i v e research, t r a i n i n g , and e x c h a n g e o f i n f o r m a t i o n t h r o u g h grants t o
1 0 u n i v e r s i t i e s i n U S A l i n k e d t o 1 4 host c o u n t r i e s i n the d e v e l o p i n g w o r l d . B o t h host c o u n t r i e s a n d U S A are e x p e c t e d
t o b e n e f i t f r o m the a c t i v i t i e s o f Peanut C R S P . Peanut C R S P a c t i v e l y c o l l a b o r a t e s w i t h other o r g a n i z a t i o n s w i t h interest
i n a d v a n c i n g d e v e l o p m e n t t h r o u g h the a p p l i c a t i o n o f science a n d t e c h n o l o g y .
About I C R I S A T
T h e s e m i - a r i d t r o p i c s ( S A T ) encompasses parts o f 4 8 d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s i n c l u d i n g m o s t o f I n d i a , parts o f southeast
A s i a , a s w a t h e across sub-Saharan A f r i c a , m u c h o f s o u t h e r n and eastern A f r i c a , and parts o f L a t i n A m e r i c a . M a n y o f
these c o u n t r i e s are a m o n g the poorest i n the w o r l d . A p p r o x i m a t e l y o n e - s i x t h o f the w o r l d ' s p o p u l a t i o n l i v e s i n the
S A T , w h i c h i s t y p i f i e d b y u n p r e d i c t a b l e weather, l i m i t e d a n d erratic r a i n f a l l , and n u t r i e n t - p o o r soils.
I C R I S A T ' s m a n d a t e crops are s o r g h u m , pearl m i l l e t , f i n g e r m i l l e t , c h i c k p e a , p i g e o n p e a , a n d g r o u n d n u t ; these six
c r o p s are v i t a l t o l i f e f o r the e v e r - i n c r e a s i n g p o p u l a t i o n s o f the S A T . I C R I S A T ' s m i s s i o n i s t o c o n d u c t research w h i c h
can lead t o enhanced sustainable p r o d u c t i o n o f these crops a n d t o i m p r o v e d m a n a g e m e n t o f the l i m i t e d natural resources
o f the S A T . I C R 1 S A T c o m m u n i c a t e s i n f o r m a t i o n o n t e c h n o l o g i e s a s t h e y are d e v e l o p e d t h r o u g h w o r k s h o p s , n e t w o r k s ,
t r a i n i n g , l i b r a r y services, and p u b l i s h i n g .
I C R I S A T was established i n 1972. I t i s one o f 1 6 n o n p r o f i t research a n d t r a i n i n g centers f u n d e d t h r o u g h the
C o n s u l t a t i v e G r o u p o n I n t e r n a t i o n a l A g r i c u l t u r a l Research ( C G I A R ) . T h e C G I A R i s a n i n f o r m a l association o f
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 0 p u b l i c and p r i v a t e sector d o n o r s ; i t i s c o - s p o n s o r e d b y the F o o d and A g r i c u l t u r e O r g a n i z a t i o n o f the
U n i t e d N a t i o n s ( F A O ) , the U n i t e d N a t i o n s D e v e l o p m e n t P r o g r a m m e ( U N D P ) , and the W o r l d B a n k .
I A N Scientific E d i t o r
S N Nigam
The opinions in this publication are those of the authors and not necessarily those of International A r a c h i s Newsletter.
The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any
opinion whatsoever on the part of the Newsletter concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city, or area, or
of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
Where trade names are used this does
not constitute endorsement of or discrimination against any product by the Newsletter.
Contents
News and Views
F r o m the E d i t o r
1
Obituary
1
Peanut C R S P N e w s
2
G r o u n d n u t T r a i n i n g Courses i n M a l a w i
4
Research Reports
Genetics and Plant Breeding
P a l y n o l o g i c a l S u r v e y i n Arachis species o f
S e c t i o n Arachis
K Chandran and S M Pandya
5
A n Appraisal o f Triploids o f Amphidiploids
in t h e G e n u s Arachis
P V i n d h i y a v a r m a n , A M o t h i l a l , K N Ganesan,
and S E N a i n a M o h a m m e d
8
G e n e t i c A n a l y s i s o f P o d a n d Seed Characters i n Crosses
o f Large-seeded V i r g i n i a Genotypes o f Groundnut
D L Parmar, A L R a t h n a K u m a r , a n d
P S Bharodia
10
A Perennial Forage G r o u n d n u t of Interspecific O r i g i n
P V i n d h i y a v a r m a n , A M o t h i l a l , K N Ganesan,
11
and S E Naina M o h a m m e d
S t o r a b i l i t y o f G r o u n d n u t Seeds i n D i f f e r e n t
Packaging M e d i a
K Rajgopal and K Chandran
11
Identification o f M a l e Sterile M u t a n t i n G r o u n d n u t
R K Mathur and P M a n i v e l
13
Q u a n t i t a t i v e Studies o n M a t i n g S y s t e m o f G r o u n d n u t
T R a d h a k r i s h n a n a n d P Paria
15
Genetics and Interrelationship o f O i l and Protein
C o n t e n t s i n Crosses I n v o l v i n g C o n f e c t i o n e r y
Genotypes o f Groundnut
D L Parmar, A L Rathna K u m a r ,
17
Evaluation o f Bold-seeded Groundnut Accessions for
Confectionery Attributes
K Rajgopal, K Chandran, J B Misra,
P K Bhalodia, and R S M a t h u r
18
Evaluation of Some Confectionery Type Advanced
Breeding Lines of Groundnut
P Manivel, R K Mathur, A Bandyopadhyay,
M Y Samdur, and J B M i s r a
20
S c r e e n i n g F o l i a r Disease Resistant G r o u n d n u t G e n o t y p e s
B N M o t a g i , M V C Gowda, and G K N a i d u
22
P Surendra, D M M a h a l i n g a , S D Y e l s h e t t y ,
and M S Patil
24
and P S Bharodia
for Tolerance to Lime-induced I r o n Chlorosis
P e r f o r m a n c e o f V i r g i n i a G r o u n d n u t V a r i e t i e s i n the
Northeastern D r y Zone of Karnataka, India
I A N 20, 2000 i
Performance o f L o c a l Spreading T y p e Groundnut
Genotypes at Bijapur in Karnataka, India
B G Prakash, N Y N a y k a r , a n d K M H a l a s w a m y
24
N e w G r o u n d n u t C u l t i v a r s f o r Gujarat, I n d i a
P S Bharodia
26
A N e w Groundnut Variety for Vidarbha Region
o f M a h a r a s h t r a State o f I n d i a
S N Deshmukh, N S Shrikhandkar,
G N Satpute, H S G a h u k a r , A Y T h a k r e ,
R B Ulemale, and W M Dabre
27
Tirupati 4: A H i g h - y i e l d i n g Groundnut Variety
f o r A n d h r a Pradesh, I n d i a
J Ramachandra Reddy, N Rajagopal,
R P V a s a n t h i , L Prasanthi, a n d
C Ramana Reddy
28
Registration of Groundnut Cultivar Venus
( I C G V 87853)
L J Reddy, S N N i g a m , P Subrahmanyam,
F M Ismael, N Govinden, and
P J A v a n der M e r w e
29
H u a y u 16: A N e w H i g h - y i e l d i n g , I m p r o v e d Q u a l i t y
Groundnut Cultivar with Wide Adaptability
for Northern China
L i Zhengchao and Q i u Qingshu
31
A N e w H i g h - y i e l d i n g L o w O i l Content
Y u S h a n l i n , Cao Y u l i a n g ,
G u Shuyuan, and M i n Ping
32
P S u b r a h m a n y a m , P J A v a n der M e r w e ,
A J Chiyembekeza, S Ngulube,
and H A Freeman
33
P a r t i a l C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f the c D N A C l o n e o f a
L o w Temperature Induced Gene f r o m G r o u n d n u t
R S Dave and R K M i t r a
36
Sequence A s s a y a n d E x p r e s s i o n in E. coli
D H 5 a o f Peanut S t r i p e V i r u s C o a t P r o t e i n G e n e
L i Guangcun, B i Y u p i n g , Guo Baotai,
Chen Xiaoyan, Wang X i u l i , D o n g Weibo,
and L u Y a n h u i
38
E p i d e m i o l o g y o f Late L e a f Spot and Rust o f
Groundnut in Guerrero, M e x i c o
D H N o r i e g a - C a n t u , J Pereyra-Hernandez,
I C Joaqufn-Torres, G M o r a - A g u i l e r a ,
D Nieto-Angel, M A Cantu-Almaguer,
and N O G o m e z - M o n t i e l
40
C h a n g i n g S c e n a r i o o f G r o u n d n u t Diseases i n
A n d h r a Pradesh, K a r n a t a k a , a n d T a m i l N a d u
States o f I n d i a
S Pande a n d J N a r a y a n a R a o
42
E v a l u a t i o n of Wild Arachis G e r m p l a s m A c c e s s i o n s f o r
I n V i t r o Seed C o l o n i z a t i o n a n d A f l a t o x i n P r o d u c t i o n
by Aspergillus
flavus
R P Thakur, V P Rao, S V Reddy,
and M Ferguson
44
Groundnut Variety
Groundnut Variety CG 7: A Boost to
Malawian Agriculture
Biotechnology
Pathology
ii I A N 20, 2000
I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f E l i t e S h o r t - d u r a t i o n , Rosette Resistant
Lines in W o r l d Germplasm Collections
P S u b r a h m a n y a m , P J A v a n der M e r w e ,
L J Reddy, A J Chiyembekeza, F M K i m m i n s ,
and R A N a i d u
46
Management of Collar Rot of Groundnut
by
Pseudomonas fluorescens
J Sheela a n d D Packiaraj
50
M a n a g e m e n t o f L e a f Spots o f G r o u n d n u t b y N u t r i t i o n
and Fungicide: A n Integrated A p p r o a c h
S S Bag, S K Raj, and S Das
51
Bio-efficacy of Carbendazim and Mancozeb-based
F u n g i c i d e i n C o n t r o l o f E a r l y a n d L a t e L e a f Spots
o f Groundnut
M S Joshi, P G B o r k a r , a n d
A M Mandokhot
53
I n d u c t i o n o f Phenols i n G r o u n d n u t Rust Resistance
A L Rathna K u m a r and P Balasubramanian
55
C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f Isolates o f Trichoderma f o r
B i o c o n t r o l P o t e n t i a l A g a i n s t Aspergillus f l a v u s
Infection in Groundnut
S Desai, R P T h a k u r , V P R a o ,
and V Anjaiah
57
Mycotoxins from Groundnuts Marketed in Yemen
SalehaAl-Nahdi
59
Survey o f Groundnut L e a f M i n e r and
its N a t u r a l E n e m i e s i n T a m i l N a d u , I n d i a
C M u t h i a h and A A b d u l Kareem
62
G r o u n d n u t L e a f M i n e r Aproaerema modicella:
A N e w Pest i n Eastern D i s t r i c t s o f U g a n d a
W W Page, G E p i e r u , F M K i m m i n s ,
C Busolo-Bulafu, and P W N a l y o n g o
64
Occurrence o f Groundnut L e a f M i n e r
in Northern Malawi
P Subrahmanyam, A J Chiyembekeza,
and G V Ranga Rao
66
Screening of P r o m i s i n g Groundnut Genotypes for
t h e i r R e a c t i o n to Spodoptera litura
P K D h a r n e a n d S K Patel
67
B i o c h e m i c a l Basis o f Resistance i n G r o u n d n u t A g a i n s t
Leaf Miner
T S e n g u t t u v a n a n d K Sujatha
69
M o r p h o l o g i c a l and Y i e l d Attributes o f Advanced
B r e e d i n g L i n e s S u s c e p t i b l e a n d Resistant to Spodopter
litura
R P Vasanthi and K Padmavathamma
71
Evaluation o f B i o l o g i c a l C o n t r o l Potential o f
Rhinocoris marginatus on F o u r G r o u n d n u t Pests
under Laboratory Conditions
K Sahayaraj
72
Natural Fungal Pathogencity on Groundnut Defoliator
Spodoptera
litura
S Venkatesan, S N N i g a m , S E N a i n a M o h a m m e d ,
a n d K N Ganesan
74
I m p a c t o f S o m e P l a n t P r o d u c t s o n the B e h a v i o r o f
Tribolium castaneum in G r o u n d n u t Seed
K Sahayaraj a n d M G Paulraj
75
Entomology
I A N 20, 2000 iii
Agronomy
F i e l d Evaluation o f Plant G r o w t h - p r o m o t i n g
Rhizobacteria o f Groundnut
R D e y , K K Pal, S M Chauhan,
and D M Bhatt
77
Performance o f Groundnut Germplasm and Cultivars
under Saline Water Irrigation i n the Soils o f M u n d r a i n
Gujarat, I n d i a
P C Nautiyal, A Bandyopadhyay,
V G Koradia, and Madhubhai M a k a d
80
D K Kathmale, M S Kamble,
82
Y i e l d M a x i m i z a t i o n o f P o s t r a i n y Season G r o u n d n u t
through Polythene F i l m M u l c h Technology in
Western Maharashtra, India
J D Jadhav, a n d R C P a t i l
Efficacy o f Polythene M u l c h Technology i n I m p r o v i n g
R C Samui and S B A m b h o r e
84
B N M o t a g i , M V C Gowda, and S N N i g a m
87
P K Ghosh and S K Bera
88
Saleha A l - N a h d i , C S W a r d ,
M e h d i , and Al-Bushariy
89
A N Durdiyev
91
G r o w t h a n d Y i e l d o f P o s t r a i n y Season G r o u n d n u t
in West Bengal, India
Food Q u a l i t y
O i l Recovery and Q u a l i t y as Influenced by Foliar
Diseases i n G r o u n d n u t G e n o t y p e s
Utilization
W i l d A r a c h i s Species: A P o s s i b l e S o u r c e o f
L e g u m e Fodder in India
Socioeconomics
On-farm Participatory Evaluation o f Groundnut
Genotypes under Rainfed Conditions in Mahawite
Governorate, Y e m e n
G r o u n d n u t i n C e n t r a l Asia
Groundnut in Turkmenistan
Publications
Publications f r o m I C R I S A T
92
S A T C R I S Listings
92
iv I A N 20, 2000
News and Views
F r o m the E d i t o r
Obituary
T h e w o r l d g r o u n d n u t c o m m u n i t y suffered a great setback
t h i s year w h e n i t lost t w o o f its colleagues t o c r u e l hands
o f death. D r M a r f o f r o m G h a n a a n d D r Escano f r o m the
Philippines played a significant role in p r o m o t i n g groundn u t research a n d d e v e l o p m e n t i n t h e i r c o u n t r i e s . T h e i r
presence i n r e g i o n a l f o r a a n d o t h e r m e e t i n g s a l w a y s
b r o u g h t l i f e a n d d e p t h t o discussions because o f t h e i r
vast e x p e r i e n c e n o t o n l y i n g r o u n d n u t c r o p b u t also i n
general agriculture o f their countries. The I A N fraternity
sends its c o n d o l e n c e s t o the t w o f a m i l i e s .
K O Marfo
W i t h s o m a n y t h i n g s h a p p e n i n g this year i n succession
a t I C R 1 S A T , the p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h i s issue o f I A N , i n spite
o f our g o o d intentions, got delayed. W e w i l l make our
best effort i n 2 0 0 1 t o b r i n g back the schedule o f p u b l i c a t i o n
to S e p t e m b e r / O c t o b e r . T h e r e is a general c o n c e r n about
t h e l a c k o f i m p a c t o f g r o u n d n u t research o n o n - f a r m p r o d u c t i v i t y , p a r t i c u l a r l y in less f a v o r a b l e areas, a m o n g the
d e v e l o p m e n t investors. I am sure there are several success
stories l y i n g u n n o t i c e d a n d u n s u n g w i t h researchers,
e x t e n s i o n w o r k e r s , a n d c r o p processors i n these areas.
We w i l l be very happy to include them in I A N . Similarly,
sharing one's on-farm research/farmers' participatory
research experiences t h r o u g h the m e d i u m o f I A N w i l l be
e n l i g h t e n i n g t o readers o f I A N .
I w o u l d l i k e t o a c k n o w l e d g e the c o n t r i b u t i o n o f
R B a n d y o p a d h y a y , S C h a n d r a , S L D w i v e d i , C Johansen,
N K a m e s w a r a R a o , J V D K K u m a r Rao, N M a l l i k a r j u n a ,
E M M i n j a , S Pande, G V R a n g a Rao, D V R R e d d y ,
L J Reddy, T J Rego, O P Rupela, P Subrahmanyam,
R P T h a k u r , a n d H D U p a d h y a y a as r e v i e w e r s of t h e
c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h i s issue o f I A N , a n d L e a r n i n g Systems
U n i t , I n f o r m a t i o n Resource Management Program, I C R i S A T
for c o m p i l i n g the S A T C R I S l i s t i n g and v e r i f y i n g the
r e f e r e n c e s c i t e d i n t h i s issue.
I l o o k f o r w a r d t o y o u r c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o the 2 0 0 1 issue
oflAN.
Dr K O M a r f o , an outstanding g r o u n d n u t physiologist
from the Savanna A g r i c u l t u r a l Research Institute in T a m a l e ,
Ghana, was a m o n g those w h o w e r e k i l l e d on 5 June 2 0 0 0 at
A c c r a i n t h e crash o f a d o m e s t i c a i r l i n e r . A n i m p o r t a n t
collaborator and friend o f I C R I S A T , D r M a r f o p r o v i d e d
valuable c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o g r o u n d n u t research. H e p u b l i s h e d
several j o i n t papers w i t h I C R I S A T scientists. A s p a r t o f
this c o l l a b o r a t i o n , he spent 6 m o n t h s at I C R I S A T - N i g e r in
1995 as a v i s i t i n g scientist.
D r M a r f o w a s n o t o n l y a n o u t s t a n d i n g researcher b u t
also a g o o d f r i e n d . H i s colleagues a n d f r i e n d s r e m e m b e r
h i m f o r m a k i n g e v e r y o c c a s i o n special a n d e x t e n d sincere
sympathy to his f a m i l y .
C R Escano
Dr
Crisanto
R
Escano,
D i r e c t o r , C r o p s Research
Division
(CRD),
the
Philippine
Council
for
A g r i c u l t u r e a n d Resources
Research and D e v e l o p m e n t
(PCARRD),
Philippines
Los
and
Banos,
Philip-
pines C o u n t r y C o o r d i n a t o r
f o r Cereals a n d L e g u m e s
Asia
Network
(CLAN),
I C R I S A T died o n 1 4 A u g u s t
2 0 0 0 . C r i s , as friends a n d
colleagues
fondly
called
h i m , had been determined t o
e x c e l i n h i s studies. T h r o u g h a graduate t e a c h i n g f e l l o w s h i p , h e o b t a i n e d h i s M a s t e r o f Science degree i n S o i l
Fertility and Chemistry at UP Los Banos ( U P L B ) in 1971.
A f t e r g r a d u a t i o n , he g o t a graduate research f e l l o w s h i p
S N Nigam
f r o m the B e n c h m a r k Soils P r o j e c t o f P C A R R D a n d the
University of H a w a i i for a P h D in A g r o n o m y and Soil Science.
Escaflo' s p r o f e s s i o n a l career b e g a n w h e n he s e r v e d as
I n s t r u c t o r a t U P L B . I n 1974, h e w a s t r a n s f e r r e d t o
P C A R R D a s P r o g r a m Specialist a n d w a s p r o m o t e d a s
Senior P r o g r a m Specialist in 1976, a n d in September 1980,
h e w a s d e s i g n a t e d a s A s s i s t a n t D i r e c t o r o f C R D after
I A N 20, 2000 1
s e r v i n g as T e a m leader of the N a t i o n a l S o i l Resources
is in the process of selecting the replacement projects and
C o m m o d i t y . A s Assistant Director o f C R D , h e became
w i l l shortly develop the proposal f o r the next phase. T h e
coordinator of various development projects of soybean,
r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s o f t h e E E P are t o c o n t i n u e w i t h research
groundnut, and m u n g bean. Cris was appointed as Director
i n the f o u r m a j o r areas o f f o o d safety, p r o d u c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y ,
o f C R D i n 1 9 8 6 , a n d w a s i n t h i s p o s i t i o n t i l l h e passed
socioeconomic constraints, and postharvest processing.
T h e E E P r e p o r t lists a n u m b e r o f m a j o r a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s
away.
Escano's effective leadership contributed m u c h to the
s m o o t h i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f C R D ' s R & D p r o j e c t s . H e also
b e c a m e t h e N a t i o n a l C o o r d i n a t o r o f the U N D P - F A O P r o j e c t
from t h e past 5 y e a r s . T h e s e i n c l u d e :
1.
G h a n a has s h o w n t h a t t h e h i g h e n e r g y c o n t e n t o f
o f F o o d L e g u m e s and Coarse Grains i n A s i a and the
groundnuts (peanuts) is offset by the h i g h satiety
U S A I D - P e a n u t Collaborative Research Support Program
value o f the c o m m o d i t y . T h i s means that consumers
( P - C R S P ) in the Philippines.
are n o t a t h i g h e r r i s k f o r o b e s i t y a n d c a r d i o v a s c u l a r
Escaflo was designated C o u n t r y Coordinator o f C L A N
problems f r o m a h i g h calorific intake of groundnuts.
f r o m 1986 t o A u g u s t 2 0 0 0 f o r w h i c h h e spearheaded v a r i o u s
T h e research has also s h o w n t h a t g r o u n d n u t o i l s are
projects on legumes particularly on groundnut and chickpea
healthy
that paved the w a y for a w i d e utilization by farmers of
Escano
health
h i g h p r o t e i n a n d h i g h e n e r g y suggests t h a t t h i s c r o p
is n o w w i d e l y used in m a j o r g r o u n d n u t - g r o w i n g regions
should be exploited m o r e in times of c i v i l crisis and
in the Philippines.
R&D,
cardiovascular
that g r o u n d n u t is a very hunger-satisfying f o o d , w i t h
d e v e l o p e d t h r o u g h the collaborative activities w i t h I C R I S A T ,
to
positive
International D e v e l o p m e n t ( U S A I D ) , the i n f o r m a t i o n
postharvest storage system on g r o u n d n u t , w h i c h was
dedication
have
r e s p o n s e e f f o r t s o f t h e U n i t e d States A g e n c y f o r
nated from the I C R I S A T p r o g r a m . L i k e w i s e , a low-cost
o f his
and
benefits. In developing countries and for humanitarian
groundnut varieties, w i t h parent materials h a v i n g o r i g i -
Because
T h e research c o n d u c t e d at Purdue U n i v e r s i t y , U S A
(Project P U R 1 0 U ) and the F o o d Research Institute in
on R e g i o n a l Cooperative P r o g r a m m e f o r the I m p r o v e m e n t
f a m i n e since m o r e h u n g e r p r e v e n t i o n i s d e l i v e r e d p e r
was
p a y l o a d t h a n f r o m t h e c o m m o n l y used e m e r g e n c y
a p p o i n t e d a s C h i e f T e c h n i c a l A d v i s e r ( C T A ) o f the U N D P /
rations.
F A O - P C A R R D / D O S T "Accelerated Soybean Production
and Utilization P r o g r a m " during 1992-96. He actively pro-
T h i s r e s e a r c h has r e c e i v e d a t t e n t i o n i n U S A w h e r e i t
m o t e d soybean production in Regions 1,2, and 3, w h i c h
has b e e n used t o p r o m o t e g r o u n d n u t c o n s u m p t i o n ,
are n o n - t r a d i t i o n a l
s o y b e a n - g r o w i n g areas l e a d i n g t o
w h i c h has h e l p e d r e v e r s e a 5 - y e a r ( 1 8 % ) d e c l i n e i n
i n c r e a s e d p r o d u c t i o n d u e t o e x p a n s i o n o f g r o w i n g area
consumption.
and h i g h e r yields. Several soybean processing plants have
t h a t c o n s u m p t i o n o f g r o u n d n u t i n U S A has i n c r e a s e d
One
industry
representative
states
b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d , a n d are b e i n g m a n a g e d b y c o o p e r a t i v e s .
1 3 % s i n c e t h i s r e s e a r c h b e g a n a n d t h e i m p a c t has
T h e consumers also benefited b y h a v i n g access t o n u t r i t i o u s
been estimated to be w o r t h U S $ 500 m i l l i o n annually.
and delicious soybean-based f o o d products. Because of
his accomplishments, m a n y people consider h i m as "Father
o f S o y b e a n " i n the Philippines.
2.
Research o n g e r m p l a s m o f B o l i v i a n o r i g i n (Project
U F L 1 6 P ) in Florida and Georgia in U S A and B o l i v i a
Escaflo was a w e l l - k n o w n personality in national and
has r e s u l t e d i n t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f n e w s o u r c e s o f
i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m m u n i t i e s . H i s d e a t h i s a g r e a t loss t o t h e
resistance t o the t o m a t o spotted w i l t v i r u s ( T S W V )
scientific c o m m u n i t y , especially the legumes c o m m u n i t y .
disease w h i c h has b e c o m e o n e o f t h e m o s t l i m i t i n g
diseases i n U S A . B e s i d e s h a v i n g h i g h y i e l d p o t e n t i a l ,
these lines also have m u l t i p l e resistance to f o l i a r
Peanut C R S P News
In 1 9 9 9 - 2 0 0 0 the Peanut C o l l a b o r a t i v e Research Support
diseases a n d o t h e r p r e v a l e n t diseases i n U S A . A
b r e e d i n g p r o g r a m t o e x p l o i t t h i s o p p o r t u n i t y has
b e e n i n i t i a t e d a n d a d v a n c e d l i n e s are n o w a v a i l a b l e .
P r o g r a m ( C R S P ) , U S A was r e v i e w e d b y the External
I n B o l i v i a t h e r e s e a r c h has s h o w n t h a t p r o d u c t i v i t y
E v a l u a t i o n Panel ( E E P ) . T h e team of reviewers visited
is limited m o r e by management and labor availability
projects in most locations and arrived at the conclusion
than by genetic potential. Labor-saving technologies
t h a t m a n y p r o j e c t s are m a k i n g g o o d p r o g r e s s . T h e E E P
for
has r e c o m m e n d e d that t h e successful projects be c o n t i n u e d
developed. Extension documents to promote improved
f o r a n o t h e r 5 y e a r s , a n d t h o s e t h a t are t o e n d i n 2 0 0 1 b e
management have been prepared and p r o d u c t i o n is
r e p l a c e d i n a n o p e n c o m p e t i t i v e l y b i d process. T h e P r o g r a m
increasing.
2
I A N 20, 2000
harvest
have
been
proposed
and
are
being
3.
I n M a l a w i , Peanut C R S P (Project U G A 2 8 P ) i s focused
o n d e v e l o p i n g a n d e x p l o i t i n g v i r u s resistance. Peanut
C R S P has supported the testing by the national p r o g r a m
o f l i n e s resistant t o g r o u n d n u t rosette d e v e l o p e d b y
I C R I S A T . These lines are n o w b e i n g released a n d are
b e i n g m u l t i p l i e d for d i st ri b u t i o n t o farmers, w i t h support
f r o m the U S A I D / M a l a w i mission. T h e potential benefits
to M a l a w i farmers are the elimination of rosette epidemics
that d e c i m a t e p r o d u c t i o n e v e r y 5 - 7 years. T h i s w i l l
p r o v i d e greater f o o d s t a b i l i t y , h i g h e r m e a n y i e l d s ,
and encourage m o r e farmers to produce groundnuts
since the r i s k o f loss w i l l be decreased.
companies to exploit the w o r l d w i d e market opportunities
f o r ethnic F i l i p i n o sauces a n d e x p a n d f o o d processing
operations. P r o d u c t i o n has increased 4 0 % i n the y e a r
since the t e c h n o l o g y was d e p l o y e d , and other
c o m p a n i e s are p o s i t i o n i n g themselves t o a d o p t t h i s
technology. The impact of widespread adoption of
this t e c h n o l o g y w i l l be less a f l a t o x i n - c o n t a m i n a t e d
g r o u n d n u t foods in the P h i l i p p i n e s , and therefore
a healthier population. C o m m e r c i a l c o m p e t i t i o n w i l l
ensure w i d e s p r e a d a d o p t i o n o f the t e c h n o l o g y .
7.
C o n s u m e r m a r k e t research i n B u l g a r i a has s h o w n
that a strong m a r k e t for groundnuts a n d g r o u n d n u t
products can be d e v e l o p e d . T h e Peanut C R S P (Project
U G A 1 1 U ) has h e l p e d establish a f o o d p r o c e s s i n g
p i l o t plant in Bulgaria to a l l o w local industries to
scale u p t h e i r o p e r a t i o n s , b y p r o v i d i n g t r a i n i n g t o
t e c h n i c i a n s t o f a m i l i a r i z e w i t h the m a j o r g r o u n d n u t
processing technologies.
8.
Scientists i n U S A (Peanut C R S P P r o j e c t U G A 0 4 U )
have transferred the t e c h n o l o g y o f a g r o u n d n u t
snack p r o d u c t that is successful in the P h i l i p p i n e s to
the U S m a r k e t . A N o r t h C a r o l i n a g r o u n d n u t c o m p a n y
is test m a r k e t i n g the snack p r o d u c t .
9.
Peanut C R S P s u p p o r t e d research ( P r o j e c t N C S 19P)
contributes to the pest advisory system that is c u r r e n t l y
the basis f o r integrated pest m a n a g e m e n t r e c o m m e n dations f o r g r o u n d n u t farmers i n N o r t h C a r o l i n a . T h i s
system m a x i m i z e s f a r m p r o f i t a b i l i t y a n d m i n i m i z e s
e n v i r o n m e n t a l d a m a g e t h r o u g h the e l i m i n a t i o n o f
unnecessary pesticide a p p l i c a t i o n s .
Studies o f the v a r i a b i l i t y o f g r o u n d n u t rosette v i r u s
across A f r i c a i n d i c a t e that resistance based o n v i r a l
c o a t - p r o t e i n o f the g r o u n d n u t rosette assistor v i r u s
s h o u l d b e stable. Research i n G e o r g i a has p r o d u c e d
t r a n s f o r m a n t s u s i n g a s y n t h e t i c gene.
4.
5.
6.
I n Senegal ( P r o j e c t T A M 1 7 P ) , the c u l t i v a r F l e u r 1 1
d e v e l o p e d b y scientists o f the I n s t i t u t Senegalais d e
recherche a g r i c o l e ( I S R A ) a n d Centre d e C o o p e r a t i o n
International en Recherche A g r o n o m i q u e pour le
D e v e l o p p e m e n t ( C I R A D ) i s b e i n g adopted b y farmers.
O n - f a r m s o c i o e c o n o m i c studies b y another Peanut
C R S P p r o j e c t ( U C N 3 6 S ) s h o w s that farmers f i n d this
l i n e m a i n t a i n s 2 5 % y i e l d advantage o v e r the establ i s h e d v a r i e t y . Presently, a d o p t i o n i s l i m i t e d b y seed
v o l u m e s , b u t the p o t e n t i a l i m p a c t w i l l b e a n a d d i t i o n a l
U S $ 18 m i l l i o n annually to groundnut farmers in Senegal.
I n the P h i l i p p i n e s 3 5 % o f c h i l d r e n are d e f i c i e n t i n
v i t a m i n A . T h i s s i t u a t i o n causes b l i n d n e s s a n d
decreases c h i l d s u r v i v a l . M a r k e t research c o n d u c t e d
w i t h Peanut C R S P support (Project U G A 0 4 U ) has
s h o w n that peanut b u t t e r is c o n s u m e d by a l l sectors
o f the p o p u l a t i o n , a fact that m a k e s i t a n ideal v e h i c l e
f o r m i c r o - n u t r i e n t h e a l t h i n t e r v e n t i o n s . Scientists
s u p p o r t e d b y Peanut C R S P ( U G A 0 4 U ) w o r k e d w i t h
c o m m e r c i a l g r o u n d n u t processors a n d d e v e l o p e d a
v i t a m i n A - f o r t i f i e d p e a n u t butter. T h i s p r o d u c t has
been c o m m e r c i a l i z e d a n d n o w has 3 5 % m a r k e t share
i n the M e t r o M a n i l a area a n d i s s o l d n a t i o n w i d e .
C o m m e r c i a l competition is encouraging other groundnut
processors t o d e v e l o p c o m p e t i n g p r o d u c t s .
L i v e r c a n c e r rates i n Southeast A s i a are 3 6 t i m e s
those o b s e r v e d i n U S A . A f l a t o x i n a n d hepatitis B
i n t e r a c t t o g r e a t l y increase the r i s k o f t h i s cancer i n
these areas. Researchers i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s ( P e a n u t
C R S P Project U G A 0 4 U ) , w o r k e d w i t h a groundnutbased f o o d industry a n d d e v e l o p e d s o r t i n g techniques
t o c o n t r o l a f l a t o x i n c o n t a m i n a t i o n . T h i s has a l l o w e d
10. B a s i c research a t Texas A & M U n i v e r s i t y , T e x a s ,
U S A (Project T A M 3 3 A ) s u p p o r t e d b y Peanut C R S P
has identified t w o genes that are critical to the p r o d u c t i o n
o f a f l a t o x i n s b y a s p e r g i l l i f u n g i . These genes m a y
a l l o w the use o f m o l e c u l a r e n g i n e e r i n g t e c h n i q u e s t o
eliminate or greatly d i m i n i s h aflatoxin contamination
o f g r o u n d n u t s w h e n i n f e c t e d b y the f u n g u s .
11. Peanut C R S P has established an i m p a c t assessment
a n d a d o p t i o n p r o g r a m ( P r o j e c t N C S 0 7 ) a s p a r t o f the
n e w s o c i o e c o n o m i c s thrust. O n the o t h e r h a n d t e c h n o l o g i e s f o r p r o d u c t i o n a d o p t e d b y the f a r m e r s a s
p a r t o f the g r o u n d n u t p r o g r a m are s t i l l b e i n g used.
I n the P h i l i p p i n e s , Peanut C R S P c u l t i v a r s are b e i n g
p l a n t e d m o r e i n the m a j o r g r o u n d n u t r e g i o n , a n d t h e i r
use is a major component of the Philippine's G o v e r n m e n t
a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o g r a m s . T h e E E P encourages Peanut
C R S P t o c o n t i n u e a n d e x p a n d the i m p o r t a n t w o r k o f
this p r o j e c t .
I A N 20, 2000 3
12. Socioeconomic research in Senegal ( U C N 3 6 S ) m o b i l i z e d
the E c o l e N a t i o n a l e d ' E c o n o m i e A p p l i q u e e ( E N E A )
t o focus o n e c o n o m i c p r o b l e m s i n f a r m - l e v e l g r o u n d n u t
p r o d u c t i o n . T h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C o n n e c t i c u t , U S A has
been i n v o l v e d w i t h t h i s d e v e l o p m e n t o v e r a 10-year
p e r i o d . T h e research has d e t e r m i n e d that the p r i c i n g
policies, fiscal practices, and market structure
m e a s u r e s f o l l o w e d b y the G o v e r n m e n t o f Senegal
are n o t f u l l y s e r v i n g the g r o u n d n u t sector o f the
country. A d d i t i o n a l l y , farm-level efficiency, envir o n m e n t a l q u a l i t y , h i g h seed q u a l i t y , a n d i n p u t t o
e n h a n c e p r o d u c t i v i t y w e r e c o n s i d e r e d a s the k e y t o
f u t u r e success. T h e p r o j e c t has e n c o u r a g e d p o s i t i v e
i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n E N E A a n d 1 S R A . T h i s e f f o r t has
m o r e f u l l y c o n t r i b u t e d the strengths o f E N E A t o the
Participants visiting groundnut fields near Ekwendeni,
Malawi.
a g r i c u l t u r a l sector.
13. A n i n t e r n e t - b a s e d m a n a g e m e n t i n f o r m a t i o n s y s t e m
M z u z u A g r i c u l t u r a l Development D i v i s i o n inaugurated
w a s d e v e l o p e d . I n the 4 years o f t h e present phase,
the course. O v e r 7 0 p a r t i c i p a n t s i n c l u d i n g 1 9 w o m e n
Peanut C R S P has e v o l v e d f r o m a l a r g e l y d o c u m e n t
p a r t i c i p a t e d in this course. P S u b r a h m a n y a m , Site Leader,
a n d paper-based m a n a g e m e n t to a l a r g e l y database
I C R I S A T - L i l o n g w e w e l c o m e d the guests and participants.
and electronic m e d i u m system. A l l report requirements
a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n can o c c u r t h r o u g h the internet.
T h e m a i n o b j e c t i v e s o f these courses w e r e t o d e v e l o p
a n d upgrade the s k i l l s o f research t e c h n i c i a n s , assistants,
and c o m m u n i t y volunteers in i m p r o v e d groundnut prod u c t i o n t e c h n o l o g i e s t o increase g r o u n d n u t p r o d u c t i o n
i n M a l a w i . T h e courses f a c i l i t a t e d c r o s s - f e r t i l i z a t i o n o f
ideas b e t w e e n v a r i o u s p a r t i c i p a n t s t h r o u g h f i e l d v i s i t s
G r o u n d n u t T r a i n i n g Courses
in Malawi
a n d i n p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g g r o u p discussions. T h e courses
w e r e designed to address the m a j o r issues related to
groundnut p r o d u c t i o n , u t i l i z a t i o n , and m a r k e t i n g .
I C R I S A T - L i l o n g w e has r e c e n t l y o r g a n i z e d t w o t r a i n i n g
courses
on
groundnut
production
technologies
in
M a l a w i . The first one was organized in partnership w i t h
B o t h courses w e r e c o o r d i n a t e d by A J C h i y e m b e k e z a .
Demonstration
of hand-operated
groundnut
strippers,
shellers, a n d peanut b u t t e r m a k e r by P J A v a n der M e r w e
t h e U n i t e d States A g e n c y f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t
a n d H T e m b e n u d r e w special a t t e n t i o n o f the p a r t i c i p a n t s ,
( U S A I D ) / M a l a w i a t the N a t u r a l Resources C o l l e g e near
especially w o m e n . Participants greatly benefited f r o m
L i l o n g w e from 20 to 22 M a r c h 2000. A Mtukusu, Director,
these courses i n o b t a i n i n g latest t e c h n o l o g i e s i n g r o u n d -
Department o f A g r i c u l t u r a l Research and Technical Services,
n u t p r o d u c t i o n . T h e courses w e r e r a t e d " v e r y h i g h " b y a l l
M i n i s t r y o f A g r i c u l t u r e a n d I r r i g a t i o n i n a u g u r a t e d the
the p a r t i c i p a n t s .
course. F o r t y - n i n e participants i n c l u d i n g nine w o m e n
Certificate o f attendance was a w a r d e d t o a l l p a r t i c i p a n t s
p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h i s course. T h e second one w a s o r g a n i z e d
by Wayne M c D o n a l d , Mission Environmental Officer,
i n partnership w i t h P L A N International i n M z u z u f r o m 1 0
U S A I D / M a l a w i and Narinder V e r m a , C o u n t r y Director,
to 12 A p r i l 2000. Mr Phiri, Deputy Program Manager,
PLAN/Malawi.
4 I A N 20, 2000
Research Reports
Genetics and Plant Breeding
Palynological Survey in Arachis species
of Section Arachis
K Chandran 1 and S M Pandya 2 (1. National Research
Centre for Groundnut, Ivnagar Road, PB N o . 5, Junagadh
362 0 0 1 , Gujarat, India; 2. Department of Biosciences,
Saurashtra University, Rajkot 360 005, Gujarat, India;
Present address: 7/5 Jay Street, Saurashtra Kalakendra
Society, Rajkot 360 005, Gujarat, India)
P o l l e n g r a i n s , m e a n t f o r p e r p e t u a t i n g the p l a n t species,
h a v e r e c e i v e d special a t t e n t i o n o f nature d u r i n g the
course o f e v o l u t i o n a n d s p e c i a l l y n o u r i s h e d t o c o m b a t
the vagaries of e n v i r o n m e n t (Sivarajan 1984). These u n i q u e
structural adaptations have significant t a x o n o m i c importance
as t h e y are specific to a t a x o n . In c o m p a r a t i v e m o r p h o l o g y
f o r t a x o n o m i c purposes the a p e r t u r a l characters have
been used as the base to w h i c h o t h e r characters such as
e x i n e o r n a m e n t a t i o n , a n d p o l l e n size a n d shape have been
c o l l a t e d f o r separation u p t o species l e v e l ( N a i r 1980).
P a l y n o l o g i c a l l y the genus Arachis is less i n v e s t i g a t e d .
R a m a n a n d K e s a v a n ( 1 9 6 2 , 1963a, 1 9 6 3 b ) a n d R a m a n
( 1 9 5 8 a , 1 9 5 8 b , 1959, 1965) s t u d i e d the size o f the p o l l e n
g r a i n s i n d i f f e r e n t species o f Arachis a n d r e p o r t e d that
t e t r a p l o i d species h a d g e n e r a l l y b i g g e r grains t h a n o t h e r
species. S i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n p o l l e n g r a i n size w a s
also r e p o r t e d a m o n g the d i p l o i d species of Arachis. Pen et
al. ( 1 9 8 7 ) s t u d i e d p o l l e n g r a i n s u n d e r the e l e c t r o n m i c r o scope i n d i f f e r e n t f o r m s o f c u l t i v a t e d g r o u n d n u t ( A r a c h i s
hypogaea) and r e p o r t e d the presence of three t a x o n o m i c a l
groups o f grains: prolate, s pheroidal, a n d c o l u m n a r spher o i d a l . I n their studies o n c y t o p a l y n o l o g y o f Arachis species
and their interspecific hybrids, Chaturvedi et al. ( 1 9 9 0 )
o b s e r v e d that the species of Arachis are s t e n o p a l y n o u s ,
b e i n g 3-zonocolporate and reticulated. T h e y also o b s e r v e d
that the size a n d shape o f the l u m i n a i n the r e t i c u l u m are o f
basic s i g n i f i c a n c e i n d i s t i n g u i s h i n g species.
T o s t u d y the p a l y n o l o g i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p a m o n g t h e
species of section Arachis, 35 accessions b e l o n g i n g to 13
species o f Arachis o f the s e c t i o n Arachis w e r e p r o c u r e d
f r o m I C R I S A T , Patancheru, I n d i a a n d g r o w n i n
u n r e p l i c a t e d p l o t ( 2 . 8 x 3.5 m 2 ) d u r i n g 1 9 9 6 - 9 7 . P o l l e n
g r a i n s w e r e c o l l e c t e d f r o m u n o p e n e d f l o w e r s o f 105- t o
1 1 0 - d a y - o l d plants a n d a c e t o l y z e d b y E r d t m a n ' s m e t h o d
( 1 9 6 6 ) . P e r m a n e n t slides w e r e p r e p a r e d f r o m a c e t o l y z e d
p o l l e n grains b y m o u n t i n g i n g l y c e r i n j e l l y ( N a i r 1970). F o r
d e s c r i b i n g p o l l e n grains, the t e r m i n o l o g i e s f r o m E r d t m a n
( 1 9 6 6 ) a n d N a i r ( 1 9 6 4 ) h a v e been used. T h e a p e r t u r a l
m o r p h o f o r m s w e r e s t u d i e d u n d e r the l i g h t m i c r o s c o p e .
T h e p o l a r l e n g t h (P) a n d e q u a t o r i a l l e n g t h ( E ) o f 5 0 p o l l e n
grains a t r a n d o m w e r e measured u s i n g o c u l a r m i c r o m e t e r .
F o r d e t e r m i n i n g the p o l l e n shape, P/E r a t i o was c a l c u l a t e d
a n d the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n d e s c r i b e d b y E r d t m a n ( 1 9 6 6 ) w a s
used ( T a b l e 1). T h e t h i c k n e s s o f sexine a n d n e x i n e w a s
measured by e n l a r g i n g the i m a g e u s i n g an i m a g e analyzer.
T h e average l e n g t h of the longest axis, i.e., P was used f o r
c l a s s i f y i n g the size o f the p o l l e n grains ( T a b l e 1 ) ( E r d t m a n
1966).
T h e p o l l e n grains are 3 - z o n o c o l p o r a t e w i t h r e t i c u l a t e d
exine. I n most o f the species the p o l l e n grains are o f m e d i u m
size e x c e p t i n I C G s 2 8 7 , 8 9 5 9 , a n d 8 1 9 7 w h e r e the p o l l e n
grains w e r e large a c c o r d i n g t o E r d t m a n ' s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
( T a b l e 2 ) . I n m a j o r i t y o f the accesions the p o l l e n g r a i n s
T a b l e 1 . S h a p e a n d size o f pollen grains.
Shape
Size
Designation
P/E ratio 1
Prolate
Perprolate
Euprolate
Subprolate
Prolate spheroidal
Spherical
>1.00
>2.00
1.34 -1.99
1.15-1.33
1.01-1.14
1.
Class
M i n u t e grain
Small grain
M e d i u m grain
Large grain
Gigantic grain
Polar length (urn)
<10
10-24
25-49
50-99
>200
1.00
P/E = P o l a r l e n g t h / e q u a t o r i a l l e n g t h .
Source: E r d t m a n (1966).
I A N 20, 2000
5
were euprolate (Fig.
A.
1 A a n d E ) . T h r e e accessions o f
duranensis ( I C G s 8 2 0 0 , 8 2 0 1 , a n d 8 2 0 5 ) a n d A.valida
A. monticola) the polar v i e w was t r i a n g u l a r o b l a t e . I C G 8 2 1 6
(A.
cardenasii) a n d I C G 8 1 3 2 (A.
correntind) a l s o s h o w e d
( I C G 11548) s h o w e d subprolate pollen grains (Table 2 and
t r i a n g u l a r oblate p o l l e n g r a i n s . In A. duranensis accessions,
F i g . 1C). T h e pollen grains on polar v i e w w e r e tricircular
both tricircular pollen grains ( I C G s 8 1 2 3 , 8 1 3 9 , 8 1 9 6 , 8 2 0 0 ,
( F i g . 1 B ) , circular ( F i g . 1 D ) , or triangular oblate ( F i g . 1F) in
8207, 8208, and 8956) and circular pollen grains ( I C G s
shape.
8 2 0 5 , 8 2 0 1 , and 8957) were observed. T h e thickness of the
I n b o t h a m p h i d i p l o i d species ( A . hypogaea a n d
T a b l e 2 . M e a n v a l u e s f o r p a l y n o l o g i c a l t r a i t s i n v a r i o u s species o f section Arachis.
Species
A.
batizocoi
ICG
P1
P/E
Sexine
no.
(µm)
(µm)
ratio
(µm)
(µm)
8124
42.0 ± 2.1
24.2 ± 1.9
1.7 ± 0.1
0.73 ± 0.03
0.63 ± 0.03
8209
37.0 ± 2.7
22.2 ± 2.5
1.7 ± 0.2
0.43 ± 0.21
0.52 ± 0.02
8210
36.0 ± 1.9
23.6 ± 0.8
1.5 ± 0.1
0.54 ± 0.02
0.54 ± 0.02
8958
41.4 ± 1.7
25.6 ± 2.8
1.6 ± 0.2
0.59 ± 0.04
0.78 ± 0.04
Nexine
A.
cardenasii
8216
40.7 ± 1.6
26.2 ± 2.9
1.6 ± 0.2
0.52 ± 0.03
0.57 ± 0.03
A.
correntina
8132
40.1 ± 2.3
25.4 ± 2.8
1.6 ± 0.2
0.67 ± 0.00
0.57 ± 0.04
8918
44.1 ± 2.9
29.1 ± 1.8
1.5 ± 0.1
0.85 ± 0.04
0.83 ± 0.04
A.
diogoi
4983
41.8 ± 4.3
28.2 ± 2.4
1.5 ± 0.1
0.75 ± 0.07
0.86 ± 0.00
A.
duranensis
8123
34.8 ± 1.6
24.0 ± 1.6
1.5 ± 0.1
0.47 ± 0.03
0.45 ± 0.03
8139
35.9 ± 1.8
24.3 ± 2.1
1.5 ± 0.1
0.90 ± 0.03
0.93 ± 0.03
8196
40.9 ± 2.4
26.3 ± 2.9
1.5 ± 0.2
0.58 ± 0.03
0.68 ± 0.03
8200
35.8 ± 1.6
28.8 ± 1 . 8
1.2 ± 0.1
0.70 ± 0.03
0.60 ± 0.30
8201
36.9 ± 2. 7
28.9 ± 1.6
1.3 ± 0.1
0.76 ± 0.03
0.73 ± 0.03
8205
36.6 ± 2.5
27.5 ± 2.8
1.3 ± 0.2
0.86 ± 0.04
0.93 ± 0.05
8207
39.8 ± 2.5
28.1 ± 2.5
1.4 ± 0.1
0.72 ± 0.00
0.75 ± 0.00
8208
35.8 ± 1.6
24.9 ± 2.5
1.4 ± 0.1
0.68 ± 0.03
0.71 ± 0.03
8956
40.6 ± 2.5
26.1 ± 2.9
1.6 ± 0.2
0.68 ± 0.03
0.71 ± 0.03
8957
41.3 ± 0.8
26.7 ± 2.0
1.6 ± 0.2
0.71 ± 0.04
0.81 ± 0.04
A. helodes
8955
40.7 ± 1.6
27.8 ± 2.7
1.5 ± 0.1
0.62 ± 0.03
0.88 ± 0.03
A.
hoehnei
8190
45.9 ± 2.4
28.7 ± 1.9
1.6 ± 0.1
0.75 ± 0.03
0.81 ± 0.04
A.
hypogaea
V i r g i n i a bunch
5813
46.1 ± 2.5
31.6 ± 2.9
1.5 ± 0.1
0.81 ± 0.04
0.81 ± 0.04
V i r g i n i a runner
5770
46.1 ± 3.2
29.6 ± 3.1
1.6 ± 0.2
0.65 ± 0.03
0.75 ± 0.05
0.89 ± 0.04
Spanish bunch
Valencia
A.
kempff-mercadoi
A.
khulmannii
A.
monticola
A.
A.
stenosperma
valida
1.
P = Polar length.
2
E = Equatorial length.
6
I A N 20, 2000
287
52.5 ± 2.0
36.2 ± 2.2
1.5 ± 0.1
0.76 ± 0.03
3704
42.3 ± 2.4
29.1 ± 1.4
1.5 ± 0.1
0.80 ± 0.03
0.74 ± 0.00
8164
40.9 ± 1.2
24.8 ± 2.5
1.7 ± 0.2
0.60 ± 0.03
0.65 ± 0.03
8959
50.2 ± 3.4
30.7 ± 2.7
1.6 ± 0.2
0.76 ± 0.03
0.84 ± 0.03
8954
42.0 ± 2.7
23.9 ± 1.4
1.8 ± 0.2
0.62 ± 0.03
0.58 ± 0.03
8197
50.2 ± 2.9
32.9 ± 2.9
1.5 ± 0.1
0.72 ± 0.03
0.75 ± 0.04
8198
42.8 ± 3.1
23.5 ± 0.0
1.8 ± 0.1
0.54 ± 0.02
0.62 ± 0.03
8135
45.4 ± 2.6
30.3 ± 3.0
1.5 ± 0.2
0.81 ± 0.06
0.86 ± 0.04
8125
35.5 ± 2.3
24.6 ± 2.3
1.4 ± 0.2
0.59 ± 0.03
0.61 ± 0.00
8126
36.9 ± 2.6
24.3 ± 2.1
1.5 ± 0.2
0.61 ± 0.03
0.61 ± 0.03
8137
41.0 ± 0.8
28.9 ± 1.6
1.4 ± 0.1
0.83 ± 0.07
0.95 ± 0.03
8906
45.9 ± 2.3
30.0 ± 1.8
1.5 ± 0.1
0.77 ± 0.00
0.77 ± 0.00
11548
35.6 ± 1.8
27.9 ± 2.6
1.3 ± 0.1
0.96 ± 0.04
1.25 ± 0.05
e x i n e was m a x i m u m in A. valida w i t h an average 0.96 | i m
sexine a n d 1.25 µm n e x i n e .
M o r p h o l o g i c a l traits c o m m o n t o a l l species w e r e nature
o f c o l p i a n d e x i n e o r n a m e n t a t i o n . T h e shape o f the p o l l e n
g r a i n a n d its shape i n p o l a r v i e w s h o w s o m e trends a s
o b s e r v e d in A. hypogaea a n d A. monticola. Presence of
t r i a n g u l a r oblate p o l l e n g r a i n s i n the d i p l o i d species
(A. correntina a n d A. cardenasii) i n d i c a t e that one of
these species m i g h t have c o n t r i b u t e d to the e v o l u t i o n of the
t e t r a p l o i d species. Since i n t r a - s p e c i f i c v a r i a t i o n f o r m a n y
of the traits were also observed, d i s t i n c t i o n at species l e v e l
was v e r y d i f f i c u l t . T e t r a p l o i d species are r e p o r t e d t o have
Figure 1. Pollen grains of three Arachis species: ( A ) I C G 8209 (A. batizocoi), equatorial view (1730x); (B) I C G 8209, polar view
(1470x); ( C ) I C G 8205 (A. duranensis), equatorial view (1430x); ( D ) I C G 8205, polar view(1320x); ( E ) I C G 5770 (A. hypogaea),
equatorial view (1575x); ( F ) I C G 5770, polar view (1310x).
I A N 20, 2000 7
v e r y l a r g e p o l l e n g r a i n s c o m p a r e d t o d i p l o i d species
( R a m a n 1965). O u r study s h o w e d that m a n y d i p l o i d species
(A.
batizocoi, A.
kempff-mercadoi, A.
hoehnei,
and
A . c o r r e n t i n a ) a l s o h a d a l m o s t t h e same l e n g t h o f g r a i n
b u t the e q u a t o r i a l axis w a s shorter t h a n that of A. hypogaea
a n d A. monticola accessions. B a s e d on a p e r t u r a l m o r p h o f o r m s a n d e x i n e o r n a m e n t a t i o n t h e genus Arachis w a s
described as stenopalynous ( C h a t u r v e d i et al. 1990). O u r
studies based o n l i g h t m i c r o s c o p y i n d i c a t e t h a t v a r i a t i o n
i s p r e s e n t i n p o l l e n m o r p h o l o g y i n the genus Arachis a n d
further investigation under scanning electron microscope
m a y r e v e a l f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n f o r u s i n g these t r a i t s f o r
s y s t e m a t i c studies.
R a m a n , V . S . 1959. Studies i n the genus Arachis. V I .
Investigations on 30-chromosomed interspecific hybrids.
I n d i a n Oilseeds J o u r n a l 3 : 1 5 7 - 1 6 1 .
R a m a n , V . S . 1965. P o l l e n size i n n a t u r a l a n d s y n t h e t i c
p o p u l a t i o n s o f certain p l a n t species. J o u r n a l o f P a l y n o l o g y
1:97-104.
R a m a n , V . S . , and K e s a v a n , P . C . 1962. Studies o n a d i p l o i d
inter specif ic h y b r i d i n Arachis. N u c l e u s 5 : 1 2 3 - 1 2 6 .
R a m a n , V . S . , a n d K e s a v a n , P . C . 1963a. C y t o g e n e t i c s o f
a n interspecific h y b r i d i n Arachis. Proceedings o f the I n d i a n
A c a d e m y o f Sciences, S e c t i o n B 5 8 : 5 1 - 5 6 .
R a m a n , V . S . , a n d K e s a v a n , P . C . 1963b. I n d u c e d a u t o -
Acknowledgments. T h e authors are thankful to Dr A K S i n g h
( f o r m e r l y i n I C R I S A T , Patancheru) f o r p r o v i d i n g the
germplasm and Dr A Bandyopadhyay, Director, National
Research Centre f o r G r o u n d n u t ( N R C G ) , J u n a g a d h , I n d i a
for p r o v i d i n g the facilities for conducting this study.
tetraploidy in Arachis duranensis. I n d i a n Journal of Genetics
23:320-324.
S i v a r a j a n , V . V . 1984. I n t r o d u c t i o n t o p r i n c i p l e s o f p l a n t
taxonomy. N e w Delhi, India: O x f o r d & I B H Publishing Co.
295 p p .
References
C h a t u r v e d i , M . , Y u n u s , D . , and N a i r , P . K . K . 1990. C y t o p a l y n o l o g i c a l studies o f Arachis ( L e g u m i n o s a e ) c u l t i v a t e d
A n Appraisal o f Triploids o f
Amphidiploids in the Genus Arachis
a n d w i l d species a n d t h e i r h y b r i d s . G r a n a 2 9 ( 2 ) : 1 0 9 - 1 1 7 .
E r d t m a n , G . 1966. P o l l e n m o r p h o l o g y a n d plant t a x o n o m y .
N e w Y o r k , U S A : H a m e r Pub. Co. 380 pp.
P V i n d h i y a v a r m a n , A M o t h i l a l , K N Ganesan, and
S E Naina M o h a m m e d (Regional Research Station,
Vridhachalam 606 0 0 1 , Tamil Nadu, India)
N a i r , P . K . K . 1964. P o l l e n m o r p h o l o g y . Pages 2 0 3 - 2 2 4 i n
A d v a n c e s i n p a l y n o l o g y ( N a i r , P . K . K . , ed.). L u c k n o w , I n d i a :
The U n i t e d B l o c k Printers.
N a i r , P . K . K . 1970. C r o p p a l y n o l o g y a n d its significance i n
a g r i c u l t u r a l research. J o u r n a l o f P a l y n o l o g y 6 : 2 5 - 3 0 .
N a i r , P . K . K . 1980. P o l l e n m o r p h o l o g y i n r e l a t i o n t o p l a n t
t a x o n o m y a n d e v o l u t i o n . Pages 2 5 3 - 2 7 1 in Glimpses in p l a n t
research. V o l . V . M o d e r n trends i n p l a n t t a x o n o m y ( N a i r ,
P . K . K . , ed.). N e w D e l h i , I n d i a : V i k a s P u b l i s h i n g H o u s e .
P e n , S., Z h u a n g , W . J . , and H u a n g , J . H . 1 9 8 7 . L e n s a n d
electron microscopic scanning on the p o l l e n m o r p h o l o g y
o f d i f f e r e n t t y p e s a n d v a r i e t i e s o f p e a n u t {Arachis
hypogaea L ) . J o u r n a l o f F u j i a n A g r i c u l t u r a l C o l l e g e
16:313-319.
R a m a n , V . S . 1 9 5 8 a . S t u d i e s i n t h e g e n u s Arachis. I .
O b s e r v a t i o n s o n t h e m o r p h o l o g i c a l characters o f c e r t a i n
species o f Arachis. I n d i a n Oilseeds J o u r n a l 1 : 2 3 5 - 2 4 6 .
R a m a n , V . S . 1958b. Studies i n t h e genus Arachis. I I .
C h r o m o s o m e n u m b e r s o f certain species o f Arachis. I n d i a n
Oilseeds J o u r n a l 2 : 7 2 - 7 3 .
8 I A N 20, 2000
G r o u n d n u t ( A r a c h i s hypogaea) is a t e t r a p l o i d ( 2 n = 4 x = 4 0 ) ,
whereas, m o s t o f its w i l d relatives are d i p l o i d ( 2 n = 2 x = 2 0 ) .
T h e d e s i r a b l e attributes are d i s p e r s e d i n d i f f e r e n t w i l d
species. H e n c e p r o d u c t i o n o f s y n t h e t i c a m p h i d i p l o i d s
w i l l c o m b i n e the desirable features from at least t w o species
( S i n g h 1986) w h i c h can be u t i l i z e d for further introgress i o n t o the c u l t i v a t e d g r o u n d n u t . F o u r p e r e n n i a l d i p l o i d
w i l d species, A. stenosperma, A. cardenasii, A. villosa,
a n d A. kempff-mercadoi, b e l o n g i n g to s e c t i o n Arachis
w e r e u t i l i z e d t o p r o d u c e three a m p h i d i p l o i d s . T h e y w e r e
A. stenosperma x A.
kempff-mercadoi, A. stenosperma x
A. cardenasii, a n d A. cardenasii x A. villosa.
T h e three a m p h i d i p l o i d s w e r e h y b r i d i z e d w i t h c v V R I 4
o f A . hypogaea i n r e c i p r o c a l w a y s t o p r o d u c e s i x t r i p l o i d s
( 2 n = 3 x = 3 0 ) . T h e f o u r d i p l o i d w i l d species w e r e h y b r i d i z e d
simultaneously w i t h cv V R I 4 to produce four triploids:
VRl 4 x A. stenosperma, V R I 4 x A. cardenasii, V R I 4 x
A. villosa, a n d V R I 4 x A. kempff-mercadoi. A l l t h e t e n
triploids were studied for pollen stainability.
A m o n g the f o u r t r i p l o i d s o f A . hypogaea x d i p l o i d w i l d
species studied, the t r i p l o i d of A. kempff-mercadoi e x h i b i t e d
T a b l e 1 . P o l l e n f e r t i l i t y a n d v e g e t a t i v e v i g o r i n d i f f e r e n t c o m b i n a t i o n s o f t r i p l o i d s o f A r a c h i s species.
Pollen
Radius of the
N o . o f plants
fertility
canopy coverage
Leaflet size
studied
(%)
(cm)
(cm)
V R I 4 x A. stenosperma
8
7.0
95
2.8 x 1.8
V R I 4 x A. kempff-mercadoi
9
7.5
110
2.9 x 1.7
V R I 4 x A. cardenasii
7
10.0
90
3.1 x 2.2
V R I 4 x A. villosa
6
13.7
73
2.7 x 1.7
V R I 4 x (A. stenosperma x A. kempff-mercadoi)
7
6.0
199
3.3 x 1.6
V R I 4 x (A. stenosperma x A. cardenasii)
6
5.0
185
3.2 x 2.0
V R I 4 x (A. cardenasii x A. villosa)
7
30.5
170
3.0 x 2.3
4.6 x 2.4
Parentage o f t r i p l o i d s
A. hypogaea x diploid wild species
A. hypogaea x synthetic amphidiploids
Direct crosses
Reciprocal crosses
(A. stenosperma x A. kempff-mercadoi) x V R I 4
3
10.5
135
(A. stenosperma x A. cardenasii) x V R I 4
2
38.0
141
4.7 x 2.0
(A. cardenasii x A. villosa) x V R I 4
3
38.5
132
4.4 x 2.3
vegetative luxuriance as measured by canopy coverage,
r a n g e d from 4 3 . 6 % to 5 4 . 7 % in t h e crosses A. chacoense x
whereas the t r i p l o i d of A.
A.
villosa w a s c o m p a c t a n d h a d
correntina,
A.
duranemis
x
A.
cardenasii,
and
A. stenosperma x A. chacoense. In g e n e r a l t h e t r i p l o i d s of
h i g h e r p o l l e n s t a i n a b i l i t y ( T a b l e 1).
T h e V R I 4 x a m p h i d i p l o i d crosses s h o w e d h i g h v e g -
a m p h i d i p l o i d s had b i g g e r leaflets and standard petal than
e t a t i v e v i g o r f o r c a n o p y c o v e r a n d l e a f size c o m p a r e d t o
their corresponding t w o triploids of cv V R I 4 x d i p l o i d
t h e t r i p l o i d s d e r i v e d f r o m V R I 4 x d i p l o i d w i l d species
w i l d species.
( T a b l e 1). A m o n g the t r i p l o i d s o f a m p h i d i p l o i d s , the c a n o p y
coverage was h i g h w h e n the a m p h i d i p l o i d was used as
m a l e p a r e n t w h e r e a s , t h e r e c i p r o c a l s w e r e less v i g o r o u s
w i t h b r o a d e r , l i g h t g r e e n leaves. S i n g h ( 1 9 8 6 ) r e p o r t e d
that the c h r o m o s o m e p a i r i n g was m o r e disturbed in the
h y b r i d s w h e n synthetic a m p h i d i p l o i d s w e r e used as the
A c k n o w l e d g m e n t s . T h e s u p p l y o f w i l d species b y t h e
Genetic Resources U n i t o f I C R l S A T , Patancheru, I n d i a i s
g r a t e f u l l y a c k n o w l e d g e d . T h e author is also t h a n k f u l to
t h e I n d i a n C o u n c i l o f A g r i c u l t u r a l Research ( I C A R ) , N e w
D e l h i for rendering financial support f o r the p r o g r a m .
f e m a l e p a r e n t s , c o m p a r e d t o t h a t i n t h e r e c i p r o c a l crosses
i n d i c a t i n g t h e existence o f c y t o p l a s m i c d i f f e r e n c e s . F u r t h e r
t h e presence o f m u l t i v a l e n t s i n t h e h y b r i d s o f A . hypogaea
x amphidiploids is indicative of h i g h intragenomic as w e l l
References
as intergenomic p a i r i n g .
B o t h direct a n d reciprocal combinations o f the t r i p l o i d s
of a m p h i d i p l o i d A
cardenasii x A.
villosa r e c o r d e d h i g h e s t
G a r d n e r , M . E . B . , and S t a l k e r , H . T . 1983. C y t o l o g y a n d
l e a f s p o t r e s i s t a n c e o f s e c t i o n Arachis a m p h i d i p l o i d s a n d
p o l l e n fertility o f 3 0 . 5 % and 3 8 . 5 % respectively. H o w e v e r ,
their
the reciprocal effect was evident in the combination
23:1069-1074.
A.
stenosperma
x A.
cardenasii f o r p o l l e n
fertility.
with
Arachis
hypogaea.
Crop
Science
The
d i r e c t cross r e c o r d e d 5 % whereas the reciprocal recorded
3 8 % p o l l e n f e r t i l i t y ( T a b l e 1).
in
hybrids
S i n g h , A . K . 1986. U t i l i z a t i o n o f w i l d relatives i n the genetic
i m p r o v e m e n t of Arachis hypogaea L. 8. S y n t h e t i c a m p h i -
Gardner and Stalker (1983) reported that pollen fertility
diploids and their importance in interspecific breeding.
the
Theoretical and A p p l i e d Genetics 7 2 : 4 3 3 - 4 3 9 .
hybrids
b e t w e e n A.
hypogaea
x
amphidiploid
I A N 20, 2000
9
Genetic Analysis of Pod and Seed
Characters in Crosses of Large-seeded
Virginia Genotypes of Groundnut
percentage, a n d 100-seed mass i n d i c a t i n g the i m p o r t a n c e
of both additive and dominance components in the inh e r i t a n c e o f these t r a i t s ( T a b l e 1). H o w e v e r , t h e r e w a s n o
agreement between F1 and F2 on the preponderance of
g e n e t i c c o m p o n e n t . I n F2, d o m i n a n c e c o m p o n e n t s w e r e
D L P a r m a r , A L Rathna K u m a r , and P S Bharodia
g r e a t e r i n m a g n i t u d e t h a n a d d i t i v e c o m p o n e n t s f o r these
(National Research Centre for Groundnut, Ivnagar Road,
traits. T h e percentage o f s o u n d m a t u r e seeds w a s c o n t r o l l e d
PB N o . 5, Junagadh 362 0 0 1 , Gujarat, India)
p r e d o m i n a n t l y by non-additive genetic effect in b o t h the
generations. O v e r d o m i n a n c e was observed f o r 100-seed
I n g r o u n d n u t , m a n y e c o n o m i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t t r a i t s are
mass b o t h in F1 and F2 generations w h i l e f o r p o d y i e l d and
quantitatively inherited. E x p l o i t a t i o n o f genetic variability
s h e l l i n g p e r c e n t a g e , i t w a s o b s e r v e d o n l y i n F2. N a r r o w
f o r these traits i s the p r i m a r y f o c u s i n m o s t o f the g r o u n d n u t
sense h e r i t a b i l i t y w a s m o d e r a t e t o h i g h f o r s h e l l i n g p e r -
b r e e d i n g p r o g r a m s . A l t h o u g h , i n f o r m a t i o n o n the inheritance
c e n t a g e , 100-seed m a s s , a n d p o d y i e l d b u t l o w f o r s o u n d
o f v a r i o u s q u a n t i t a t i v e t r a i t s i s a v a i l a b l e , studies p e r t a i n i n g
m a t u r e seeds. L o w h e r i t a b i l i t y f o r t h e l a t t e r w a s d u e t o
t o t h e g e n e a c t i o n g o v e r n i n g p o d a n d seed c h a r a c t e r s i n
p r e d o m i n a n t l y non-additive gene effect responsible f o r
crosses b e t w e e n l a r g e - s e e d e d g e n o t y p e s are l i m i t e d . A n
the expression of the trait. The o v e r d o m i n a n c e in 100-
understanding of genetic systems c o n t r o l l i n g the expres-
seed m a s s i s d u e t o i n t e r a c t i n g n o n - a l l e l i c l o c i r a t h e r t h a n
s i o n o f p o d a n d seed c h a r a c t e r s b e c o m e s e s s e n t i a l b e f o r e
the over d o m i n a n c e by itself.
f o r m u l a t i n g a suitable breeding p r o g r a m . T w e n t y - e i g h t
crosses
C o n s i d e r i n g the segmental p o l y p l o i d nature o f g r o u n d n u t
i n v o l v i n g eight large-seeded g r o u n d n u t geno-
and c o n t r o l o f several qualitative traits b y
duplicate
types w e r e p r o d u c e d in a diallel fashion e x c l u d i n g r e c i p r o c a l s .
genes ( H a m m o n s 1973), presence o f epistasis c a n n o t b e
T h e F 1 s a n d F2s a l o n g w i t h p a r e n t s w e r e r a i s e d i n a
o v e r r u l e d i n the i n h e r i t a n c e o f these t r a i t s . H e n c e , p e d i g r e e
r a n d o m i z e d complete block design w i t h 3 replications.
breeding f o l l o w e d b y biparental m a t i n g and inter-mating o f
A n a l y s i s o f genetic components o f variance ( H a y m a n
elite segregants in early generations s h o u l d be useful to
1954) f o r f o u r characters revealed that additive genetic
harness b o t h a d d i t i v e a n d d o m i n a n c e g e n e e f f e c t s . Selec-
effects ( D ) and non-additive effects (H1 and H2) were
t i o n a t later generations s h o u l d aid i n i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f
significant in F1 and F2 generations for p o d y i e l d , shelling
desirable recombinants.
T a b l e 1 . E s t i m a t e s o f c o m p o n e n t s o f genetic v a r i a n c e f o r p o d y i e l d , shelling, s o u n d m a t u r e seeds, a n d 100-seed mass i n
groundnut1.
Genetic component
D
Pod y i e l d
Shelling
Sound mature seeds
(g plant - 1 )
(%)
(%)
F1
23.16**
±2.82
20.05*
H1
±6.48
19.64*
H2
±5.64
h2
F
(H1/D)1/2
Heritability
F2
F1
23.21**
51.05**
±1.85
±1.83
134.22**
±17.02
131.36**
±14.80
10
±3.84
F2
41.25
41.56
±28.10
±27.34
188.53**
256.72**
1130.58**
±4.20
±35.28
±64.60
±251.40
16.78**
173.70**
195.37*
±3.66
±30.69
±56.21
±218.72
0.53
9.35
42.32
14.62
880.09**
34.62**
69.63**
±3.78
±2.48
±2.45
±5.15
±37.69
±36.67
-6.03
-1.60
4.84
39.95
81.65
176.67
±6.66
±8.74
±4.32
±18.13
±66.40
±129.20
0.93
2.40
0.61
1.92
-
-
45.9
* S i g n i f i c a n t at P - 0 . 0 5 % ; **
I A N 20, 2000
51.12**
(g)
F1
19.14**
39.6
77.1
(narrow sense) (%)
1.
F2
S i g n i f i c a n t at P - 0 . 0 1 % .
64.8
18.3
100-seed mass
17.0
F1
53.76**
±4.73
86.29**
±10.87
F2
53.42**
±3.54
274.88**
±32.57
71.82**
226.01**
±9.46
±28.34
57.92**
30.30**
±6.34
±4.75
29.86*
66.55**
±11.18
1.27
48.0
±16.74
2.27
58.1
References
H a m m o n s , R . O . 1973. G e n e t i c s o f Arachis hypogaea.
Pages 1 3 5 - 1 7 3 in Peanuts c u l t u r e a n d uses. S t i l l w a t e r ,
O k l a h o m a , U S A : A m e r i c a n Peanut Research and E d u c a t i o n
Association.
H a y m a n , B . l . 1954. T h e o r y a n d analysis o f d i a l l e l crosses.
Genetics 3 9 : 7 8 9 - 8 0 9 .
A Perennial Forage G r o u n d n u t of
Interspecific O r i g i n
P V i n d h i y a v a r m a n , A M o t h i l a l , K N Ganesan, and
S E Naina M o h a m m e d (Regional Research Station,
Vridhachalam 606 0 0 1 , Tamil Nadu, India)
To feed a balanced diet to animals for m i l k and meat p r o d u c t i o n , t h e grass f o d d e r s h o u l d b e s u p p l e m e n t e d w i t h
n u t r i t i o u s forage legumes. H o w e v e r , such forage l e g u m e s
s u i t a b l e f o r e i t h e r m i x e d c r o p p i n g w i t h cereals o r grasses
o r f o r m o n o c r o p p i n g are v e r y l i m i t e d . P e r e n n i a l l e g u m e s
such as Stylo, Siratro, Calatro, and Centro, t h o u g h r e c o g nized as p r o m i s i n g perennial forage legumes, have limitations
in their large-scale c u l t i v a t i o n due to soil preferences, c l i m a t e ,
r a i n f a l l , a n d o t h e r factors. T h e search i s o n f o r t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f a s u i t a b l e h i g h - y i e l d i n g f o d d e r l e g u m e f o r the
s e m i - a r i d areas o f T a m i l N a d u i n I n d i a .
G r o u n d n u t ( A r a c h i s hypogaea) is an i m p o r t a n t o i l s e e d
c r o p . T h e h a u l m s o f this c r o p are d r i e d , stored, a n d u t i l i z e d
a s a g o o d source o f r i c h cattle feed. O n e o f the desirable
a t t r i b u t e s present i n t h e w i l d species i s the h i g h f o d d e r
value. H e n c e , an attempt was m a d e at the R e g i o n a l Research
Station, Vridhachalam, T a m i l N a d u to develop perennial
forage g r o u n d n u t b y interspecific h y b r i d i z a t i o n . A d i p l o i d
( 2 n = 2 x = 2 0 ) w i l d species, Arachis cardenasii ( I C G 11563),
w a s u t i l i z e d as a p o l l e n p a r e n t a n d a cross w a s m a d e w i t h
cv V R I 4 of A. hypogaea ( 2 n = 4 x = 4 0 ) . A t o t a l n u m b e r of 15
t r i p l o i d ( 2 n = 3 x = 3 0 ) hybrids were obtained. The pollen f e r t i l i t y
o f the t r i p l o i d s was assessed b y staining w i t h a c e t o c a r m i n e .
A b o u t 1 0 - 1 5 % o f the p o l l e n was r o u n d a n d d a r k l y stained.
T h e p o l l e n o f the partially fertile triploids was u t i l i z e d
for backcrossing w i t h c v V R I 4 . I n the resultant BC1F1,
f i v e h y b r i d s were obtained. T h e B C 1 F 1 h y b r i d plants were
v i g o r o u s a n d p r o s t r a t e w i t h d a r k g r e e n b r o a d e r leaves.
A l t h o u g h t h e f l o w e r i n g w a s p r o f u s e there w a s n o seed
setting. Since the vegetative g r o w t h was luxuriant, the
m a t e r i a l w a s tested f o r a m e n a b i l i t y f o r c u t t i n g a n d t h e
success r a t e o f v e g e t a t i v e p r o p a g a t i o n , t h e t w o m a j o r
prerequisites f o r perennial forage t y p e . T h e results r e v e a l e d
that the p l a n t s w e r e a m e n a b l e f o r m u l t i p l e c u t t i n g . U n d e r
f a v o r a b l e m o i s t u r e c o n d i t i o n s , u p t o 9 8 % success w a s
o b s e r v e d f o r v e g e t a t i v e p r o p a g a t i o n w h e n m a t u r e stem
c u t t i n g s w e r e used. T h e n the m a t e r i a l s w e r e p l a n t e d i n a
large-scale p l o t o f 0.2 h a a n d 1 7 t o f g r e e n f o d d e r w a s
h a r v e s t e d f r o m that area i n a year. T h e p a l a t a b i l i t y o f t h e
f o d d e r w a s tested b y f e e d i n g t o cattle. I t w a s o b s e r v e d
that cattle r e l i s h e d t h e f o d d e r . T h e g e n o t y p e w a s d e s i g nated as V G ( F ) 9873 a n d supplied for m u l t i l o c a t i o n a l testing
i n different research stations o f the T a m i l N a d u A g r i c u l t u r a l
University.
T h o u g h the e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f the s t e m c u t t i n g s w a s
i n i t i a l l y s l o w , g r o w t h was r e m a r k a b l e later. T h e c r o p c o u l d
b e c u t f o r green f o d d e r i n a b o u t 9 0 days after p l a n t i n g a n d
t h e subsequent harvest c o u l d b e h a d a t 4 5 - d a y i n t e r v a l s .
I n each c u t , g r e e n f o d d e r y i e l d o f a b o u t 1 2 t h a - 1 c o u l d b e
o b t a i n e d a n d hence f r o m 7 - 8 c u t t i n g s a t o t a l q u a n t i t y o f
8 0 - 8 5 1 h a - 1 w a s h a r v e s t e d i n a year. T h e sterile n a t u r e o f
t h e g e n o t y p e has a n advantage a s there i s n o d e p l e t i o n o f
photosynthates w h i c h is conserved w i t h o u t diversion to
p o d formation. D e v e l o p m e n t o f rhizomatous roots helps
easy m u l t i p l i c a t i o n ; w a t e r s t o r e d i n those r h i z o m e s h e l p s
t o t i d e o v e r adversities a n d m a k e s i t d r o u g h t resistant.
T h e profuse a d v e n t i t i o u s r o o t s h e l p i n b i n d i n g t h e s o i l
a n d p r e v e n t e r o s i o n . T h e dense f o l i a g e h e l p s t o s m o t h e r
weeds. L i k e a n y o t h e r l e g u m e , t h i s g e n o t y p e enriches s o i l
fertility through root nodules. Further, it was i m m u n e to
f o l i a r diseases such as rust a n d l e a f spots. As the g r o u n d n u t
c r o p has w i d e a d a p t a b i l i t y , t h i s g e n o t y p e m a y also adapt
t o v a r y i n g e c o l o g i c a l niches o f t h i s vast c o u n t r y .
Acknowledgments. T h e supply of w i l d species A. cardenasii
( I C G 1 1 5 6 3 ) b y I C R I S A T , Patancheru, I n d i a i s g r a t e f u l l y
a c k n o w l e d g e d . T h e a u t h o r s are t h a n k f u l t o t h e I n d i a n
C o u n c i l o f A g r i c u l t u r a l Research ( I C A R ) , N e w D e l h i , I n d i a
f o r the f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t r e n d e r e d f o r t h e p r o g r a m .
Storability of G r o u n d n u t Seeds in
Different Packaging M e d i a
K Rajgopal and K Chandran (National Research Centre
for Groundnut, Ivnagar Road, PB N o . 5, Junagadh 362 0 0 1 ,
Gujarat, India)
The germplasm of cultivated groundnut is generally
stored i n the f o r m o f pods i n ambient conditions where
c o l d storage f a c i l i t y i s n o t a v a i l a b l e . D i f f e r e n t p a c k a g i n g
m e d i a , d e p e n d i n g o n a v a i l a b i l i t y , cost, a n d c o n v e n i e n c e
I A N 20, 2000 11
i n h a n d l i n g , are n o r m a l l y u s e d f o r s t o r a g e o f p o d s . U n d e r
gauge thickness ( P L B ) ; (4) tri-layered a l u m i n i u m f o i l
n o r m a l storage c o n d i t i o n s , the v i a b i l i t y o f g r o u n d n u t
pouches ( T L P ) w i t h 12 µ each of a l u m i n i u m and polyester
seeds i s r e t a i n e d f o r o n e y e a r ( S a n k a r a R e d d i 1 9 8 8 ) . T h e
and 250 gauze p o l y l a m i n a t i o n ; and (5) transparent p o l y -
f r e q u e n t regeneration o f g e r m p l a s m accessions affects
ethylene containers ( P C N ) w i t h screw caps. I n the first
the p u r i t y o f the accessions. T h e r e f o r e , the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
f o u r treatments 20 packets (50 pods each) were stored
o f a n ideal p a c k a g i n g m e d i u m f o r ambient storage c o u l d
whereas i n the last treatment, f o u r containers o f 2 k g c a p a c i t y
p r o v e to be beneficial to genebank curators to retain the
w e r e used to get sufficient material f o r testing o v e r the
seed v i a b i l i t y f o r a l o n g e r d u r a t i o n a n d i n m a i n t a i n i n g t h e
p e r i o d . T h e i n i t i a l g e r m i n a t i o n percentage a n d t h e m o i s t u r e
w o r k i n g c o l l e c t i o n a t b r e e d i n g centers a s t h i s w o u l d r e d u c e
content were estimated before storage o f pods ( I S T A
the expenses o n frequent regeneration o f accessions.
1976).
T h i s s t u d y w a s u n d e r t a k e n w i t h f o u r released g r o u n d n u t
The K R B and T K B were closed by stapling as sealing
c u l t i v a r s ( J 1 1 , G G 2 , G A U G 10, a n d G G 2 0 ) a t the N a t i o n a l
w i t h s y n t h e t i c g l u e d o e s n o t last l o n g d u r i n g s t o r a g e ,
Research Centre for Groundnut, Junagadh, India. To
whereas the P L B a n d T L P were h e r m e t i c a l l y sealed. T h e
regenerate adequate quantity of pods, the f o u r cultivars
temperature ranged f r o m 11.3°C to 4 0 ° C and the relative
w e r e s o w n i n r a i n y season o f 1 9 9 4 a n d h a r v e s t e d d u r i n g
h u m i d i t y f r o m 3 0 . 8 % t o 9 0 % d u r i n g the p e r i o d o f storage.
O c t o b e r a n d N o v e m b e r 1994. T h e p o d s w e r e d r i e d ( m o i s t u r e
F i f t y seeds p e r t r e a t m e n t r e p l i c a t e d t w i c e w e r e t e s t e d f o r
c o n t e n t 3 . 6 1 - 3 . 9 1 % ) i n t h e s u n f o r 1 0 days. W e l l - d e v e l o p e d
germination in a germinator at 3 0 ° C at 6 - m o n t h intervals.
and healthy pods w e r e stored i m m e d i a t e l y after d r y i n g in
T h e n o r m a l seedlings p r o d u c e d after s i x d a y s o f i n c u b a t i o n
f i v e p a k a g i n g media: ( 1 ) kraft paper bags ( K R B ) ; (2) tar-coated
w e r e used f o r c o m p u t i n g the g e r m i n a b i l i t y ( T a b l e s 1 a n d 2 ) .
k r a f t paper bags ( T K B ) ; ( 3 ) p o l y e t h y l e n e bags o f 7 0 0
R o o t length was measured in ten r a n d o m seedlings and
T a b l e 1 . I n f l u e n c e o f t h r e e factors o n g e r m i n a t i o n a n d seedling v i g o r i n d e x o f g r o u n d n u t 1 .
Seedling vigor index
Germination (%)
Factor
df
Packages ( A )
4
4
Error
969517.6**
0.64
24033.9**
SE
MSS
SE
MSS
6.02
1448.1
16.7
3
894.1**
0.69
113359.2**
10.22
12
204.3**
1.06
42813.1**
22.84
Period ( C )
4
12642.2**
0.78
1072593.8**
11.42
AxC
16
772.8**
1.74
22200.0**
25.55
23708.9**
22.85
Cultivars ( B )
AxB
1.
BxC
12
86.5**
1.56
AxBxC
48
111.7**
3.49
Error
95
df
51.09
7764.4
5220.4
24.3
= Degrees of freedom; M S S = M e a n sum of square; SE - Standard error; ** Significant at 1% level.
T a b l e 2 . M e a n seed v i a b i l i t y a n d seedling v i g o r index o f f o u r g r o u n d n u t c u l t i v a r s i n d i f f e r e n t p a c k a g i n g m e d i a u n d e r five
storage periods (in months).
Germination (%)
Package 1
Seedling vigor index
6
12
18
24
30
6
12
18
24
KRB
68.4
38.3
26.9
10.3
0.7
411
142
113
35
2
TKB
64.6
51.4
41.8
13.8
4.3
314
201
130
40
13
30
PLB
87.2
80.8
75.7
72.3
57.1
742
596
524
431
351
TLP
93.1
86.9
84.0
76.8
72.9
842
696
616
490
462
89.5
79.0
74.5
61.0
33.5
750
521
512
276
143
PCN
1.
KRB
PCN
12
=
K r a f t paper bags; T K B
=
Polyethylene
I A N 20, 2000
containers.
=
Tar-coated kraft paper bags; P L B - Polyethylene bags; T L P - Tri-layered a l u m i n i u m pouches;
the seedling v i g o r i n d e x ( S V I ) was calculated b y m u l t i p l y i n g
t h e r o o t l e n g t h w i t h g e r m i n a t i o n percentage a s suggested
b y A b d u l - B a k i and A n d e r s o n (1973). The observations
c o n t i n u e d f o r 3 0 m o n t h s at 6 - m o n t h i n t e r v a l s , t i l l the
v i a b i l i t y w a s r e d u c e d t o a b o u t 7 0 % i n a l l the treatments,
w h i c h w a s set a s t h e m i n i m u m s t a n d a r d f o r r e g e n e r a t i o n .
T h e three factor A N O V A indicated h i g h l y significant
i n f l u e n c e o f t h e packages, c u l t i v a r s , a n d storage p e r i o d
o n g e r m i n a t i o n a n d S V I ( T a b l e 1). A l l i n t e r a c t i o n s w e r e
f o u n d t o b e h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t ( P < 0 . 0 0 1 ) . T h o u g h the s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n the c u l t i v a r s w a s o b s e r v e d
f o r v i a b i l i t y a n d S V I , the t r e n d was same i n a l l the cultivars.
H e n c e , the data was p o o l e d to i d e n t i f y the suitable package
m e d i a f o r p o d storage.
Initial germination ranged from 9 8 . 7 % to 100% and S V I
r a n g e d f r o m 8 8 0 t o 1020. Seeds s t o r e d i n K R B a n d T K B
l o s t b o t h v i a b i l i t y a n d s e e d l i n g v i g o r a t a faster rate
i r r e s p e c t i v e o f c u l t i v a r s ( T a b l e 2 ) . T h e v i a b i l i t y was 6 8 . 4 %
i n K R B a n d 6 4 . 6 % i n T K B after 6 m o n t h s a n d was reduced
t o 0 . 7 % a n d 4 . 3 % r e s p e c t i v e l y a t 3 0 m o n t h s o f storage.
T h e l o n g e v i t y o f seeds was r e t a i n e d a b o v e 7 0 % u p t o 2 4
m o n t h s o f storage i n h e r m e t i c a l l y sealed P L B a n d u p t o 1 8
months only in PCN. The m a x i m u m viability (72.9%) at 30
m o n t h s w a s r e c o r d e d i n seeds stored i n T L P ; also S V I
w a s h i g h . T h e S V I s h o w e d c o r r e s p o n d i n g decrease w i t h
g e r m i n a t i o n percentage.
T h e s t u d y c o n f i r m s that g r o u n d n u t p o d s c a n b e
coveniently stored i n hermetically sealed T L P for 3 0 m o n t h s .
T h u s r e g e n e r a t i o n cost o f g e r m p l a s m c o u l d b e r e d u c e d
b y u s i n g s i m p l e storage m e d i a f o r c o n s e r v a t i o n i n a m b i ent c o n d i t i o n s . Bass ( 1 9 6 8 ) r e p o r t e d that u n d e r a m b i e n t
c o n d i t i o n s g r o u n d n u t seeds stored i n permeable envelops
lost v i a b i l i t y w i t h i n 6 months but those stored in impermeable
m a t e r i a l r e t a i n e d f u l l v i a b i l i t y f o r m o r e t h a n three years.
A c k n o w l e d g m e n t T h e authors t h a n k M r S u g a d S i n g h f o r
h i s t e c h n i c a l assistance i n c o n d u c t i n g the e x p e r i m e n t .
References
A b d u l - B a k i , A . A . , and A n d e r s o n , J . D . 1973. Relationship
between decarboxylation of glutamic acid and vigour in
s o y b e a n seed. C r o p Science 1 3 : 2 2 2 - 2 2 6 .
Bass, L . N . 1968. E f f e c t o f t e m p e r a t u r e , r e l a t i v e h u m i d i t y
a n d p r o t e c t i v e p a c k a g i n g o n l o n g e v i t y o f p e a n u t seeds.
P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e A s s o c i a t i o n o f O f f i c i a l Seed A n a l y s t s
58:58-62.
I S T A ( I n t e r n a t i o n a l Seed Testing Association). 1976.
I n t e r n a t i o n a l r u l e s f o r seed t e s t i n g . Seed Science a n d
Technology 4:51-117.
S a n k a r a R e d d i , G . H . 1 9 8 8 . C u l t i v a t i o n , storage a n d
m a r k e t i n g . Pages 3 1 8 - 3 8 3 in G r o u n d n u t ( R e d d y , P.S.,
ed.). N e w D e l h i , I n d i a : I n d i a n C o u n c i l o f A g r i c u l t u r a l
Research.
Identification of M a l e Sterile M u t a n t
in G r o u n d n u t
R K M a t h u r and P Manivel (National Research Centre
for Groundnut, Ivnagar Road, PB N o . 5, Junagadh
362 0 0 1 , Gujarat, India)
O n e o f the h a n d i c a p s i n s t u d y i n g g r o u n d n u t ( A r a c h i s
hypogaea) genetics a n d c a r r y o u t b r e e d i n g is the s m a l l
size o f s e g r e g a t i n g p o p u l a t i o n that i s g e n e r a l l y a v a i l a b l e
w i t h the breeder. T h i s is m a i n l y due to difficulties in a r t i f i c i a l
h y b r i d i z a t i o n , w h i c h are g e n e r a l l y associated w i t h l o w
success i n g e t t i n g F 1 seeds. O n e o f the p o s s i b l e w a y s t o
tackle this p r o b l e m c o u l d be the identification of male s t e r i l i t y
system i n g r o u n d n u t . T h i s system w i l l facilitate the breeders
t o a v o i d the t e d i o u s process o f e m a s c u l a t i o n a n d g e t t i n g
m o r e success i n a r t i f i c i a l h y b r i d i z a t i o n . I n g r o u n d n u t , the
male sterility in segregating generation of certain intras p e c i f i c crosses a n d its i n h e r i t a n c e has been r e p o r t e d by
U p a d h y a y a a n d N i g a m ( 1 9 9 6 ) . M u t a g e n s h a v e also been
used f o r i n d u c i n g m a l e s t e r i l i t y i n several c r o p s ( B u r t o n
a n d H a n n a 1976, Jan a n d R u t g e r 1988). I n t h i s a r t i c l e w e
r e p o r t a m a l e sterile m u t a n t selected from s e g r e g a t i n g
p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e Spanish b u n c h g r o u n d n u t ( A r a c h i s
hypogaea subsp fastigiata v a r vulgaris) c u l t i v a r G i r n a r 1
treated w i t h e t h y l m e t h a n e sulfonate ( E M S ) .
T h e d r y a n d u n i f o r m s i z e d seeds o f c u l t i v a r G i r n a r 1
w e r e pre-soaked in d i s t i l l e d w a t e r f o r 12 h a n d t h e n transferred t o different concentrations o f d i e t h y l sulfonate ( D E S )
a n d E M S i n aqueous m e d i u m a n d k e p t f o r 4 h ( T a b l e 1).
For c o m b i n a t i o n treatments o f D E S and E M S , the pre-soaked
seeds w e r e s o a k e d i n i n d i v i d u a l m u t a g e n i c s o l u t i o n i n
sequence f o r 4 h each. T r e a t e d seeds w e r e w a s h e d f o r 30
m i n i n r u n n i n g w a t e r a n d s o w n i n the f i e l d a l o n g w i t h the
u n t r e a t e d c o n t r o l i n the e x p e r i m e n t a l p l o t o f the N a t i o n a l
Research C e n t r e f o r G r o u n d n u t , J u n a g a d h , I n d i a , d u r i n g
r a i n y season (kharif) 1994 and summer 1995. T h e M 2 generat i o n w a s raised i n p l a n t t o p r o g e n y r o w m e t h o d d u r i n g
r a i n y season 1995.
W h i l e h a r v e s t i n g t h e M 2 g e n e r a t i o n i n r a i n y season
1995, s o m e podless plants w i t h r e d u c e d h e i g h t a n d s m a l l
leaves w e r e n o t i c e d . O n c l o s e r e x a m i n a t i o n t h e y w e r e
f o u n d t o h a v e o n l y f r e s h f l o w e r s w i t h o u t a n y pegs o r
p o d s . T h e anthers o f these p l a n t s w e r e t r a n s l u c e n t w h i t e
I A N 20, 2000 13
v a r i e t y ) , and P B S 11003 ( d o m i n a n t m a r k e r f o r reddish
and contained n o o r v e r y f e w sterile p o l l e n grains w h e n
studied under the microscope using acetocarmine and in
f l o w e r a n d stem color). O n a l l the plants, p o l l i n a t e d f l o w e r s
t h e i n v i t r o p o l l e n g e r m i n a t i o n test ( M a l i k a n d C h a b b r a
developed into gynophores and resulted into pods and
1 9 7 6 ) . T h i s m u t a n t w a s n o t i c e d o n l y i n t w o E M S treatments
seeds. T h e n o n - p o l l i n a t e d f l o w e r s d i d n o t r e s u l t i n t o
( T a b l e 1). I t w a s o b s e r v e d i n o n e o u t o f 161 p r o g e n y r o w s
g y n o p h o r e s . I t c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e d that these p l a n t s are f e m a l e
in E M S 0.01 % treatment and one out of 2 2 4 progeny r o w s
fertile a n d m a l e sterile. T h i s m a l e sterile m u t a n t w a s desig-
in E M S 0 . 2 0 % treatment. In the progeny in E M S 0 . 0 1 % , 5
n a t e d a s G i r n a r 1 m s . T h e h y b r i d seeds o b t a i n e d f r o m
out of 18 plants were m a l e sterile whereas in the p r o g e n y
pollinated flowers were s o w n in concrete cement blocks
i n E M S 0 . 2 0 % , 1 0 o u t o f 2 7 plants w e r e m a l e sterile. I n
(2.5 m x 1 m) d u r i n g M a r c h 1999. T h e r e s u l t i n g F1 plants
b o t h cases t h e x 2 test w a s a p p l i e d a n d i t f i t s i n t h e r a t i o o f
were normal in phenotype (like male parent) and all were
3:1 f o r m a l e fertile:male sterile i n d i c a t i n g the recessive nature
fertile. They produced normal gynophores, pods, and
o f m a l e s t e r i l i t y . I n r a i n y season o f 1996 ( M 3 ) a n d 1997 ( M 4 )
seeds. B y d i g g i n g t h e s o i l s u r r o u n d i n g t h e F 1 p l a n t s ( w i t h
the p r o g e n y bulks w e r e g r o w n in w h i c h such plants were
m i n i m u m disturbance) t h e mature pods w e r e collected d u r i n g
J u l y 1 9 9 9 . B e c a u s e these p l a n t s w e r e s t i l l g r e e n a n d w e r e
again n o t i c e d and f o u n d sterile.
p r o d u c i n g c o n t i n u o u s f l o w e r s besides c o n t a i n i n g m a n y
I n M 5 g e n e r a t i o n ( 1 9 9 8 r a i n y season), s o m e sterile p l a n t s
w e r e p o l l i n a t e d w i t h p o l l e n from different genotypes, viz.,
h a n g i n g pegs, some additional soil was applied around
G i r n a r 1 (parent v a r i e t y ) , M 13 (a p o p u l a r V i r g i n i a r u n n e r
the plants. D u r i n g September 1999, second harvesting of
T a b l e 1 . T r e a t m e n t s a n d f r e q u e n c y o f m a l e sterile m u t a n t i n M 2 g e n e r a t i o n i n g r o u n d n u t
Total number o f
No. of M 2
M u t a g e n treatment 1
Frequency
plants in segregating
progeny ( M 2 )
progeny
Plant
o f mutant
rows
population
(%)
Sterile
Fertile
c 2 value
(3:1 ratio)
Probability
DES 0 . 0 1 %
-
2983
-
_
_
_
DES 0.02%
-
3510
-
-
-
-
_
-
DES 0.05%
-
6742
-
-
-
-
-
DES 0.10%
-
6779
-
-
-
-
-
DES 0.20%
-
654
-
-
-
_
-
EMS 0.01%
161 2
2861
0.17
5
18
EMS 0.02%
-
2842
-
-
-
0.13
-
E M S 0.04%
-
2085
-
-
-
-
EMS 0.05%
-
5771
-
-
-
-
EMS 0.10%
-
6060
-
-
-
-
EMS 0.20%
224 2
6642
10
0.08
DES 0 . 0 1 % + EMS 0 . 0 1 %
-
1564
0.15
-
-
27
-
DES 0 . 0 1 % + E M S 0.02%
-
2161
-
-
-
-
0.50-0.75
-
0.75-0.90
-
DES 0 . 0 1 % + E M S 0.04%
-
2460
-
-
-
—
-
DES 0.02% + EMS 0 . 0 1 %
-
2004
-
-
-
-
DES 0.02% + E M S 0.02%
-
2507
_
-
-
-
DES 0.02% + E M S 0.04%
-
2155
-
_
-
-
-
DES 0.05% + E M S 0.05%
-
6115
-
-
-
-
-
DES 0.05% + E M S 0.10%
-
6533
-
-
-
-
-
DES 0.10% + E M S 0.05%
-
6262
-
-
-
-
-
DES 0.10% + E M S 0.10%
-
6994
-
-
-
-
15
45
Total
1. D E S = D i e t h y l sulfonate; E M S = Ethyl methane sulfonate.
2.
M a l e sterile plants were observed in one progeny.
14 IAN 20, 2000
0.95-0.99
T a b l e 2 . Salient features o f m a l e sterile m u t a n t G i r n a r 1
ms a n d its p a r e n t G i r n a r 1 1 .
Salient characteristics
Height of main axis (cm)
M a x i m u m branch height (cm)
Number of primary branches
Number of secondary branches
Number of nodes on main axis
N u m b e r of leaves plant - 1
Internode length (cm)
Leaflet length (cm)
Leaflet w i d t h (cm)
Petiole length (cm)
1.
Girnar 1 ms
6.50
8.20
4.00
1.30
9.70
42.00
0.60
1.03
0.48
2.16
Quantitative Studies on M a t i n g System
of Groundnut
Girnar 1
25.30
29.00
4.07
1.30
9.90
43.00
2.55
3.50
1.70
4.40
O b s e r v a t i o n s are b a s e d on 1 0 0 p l a n t s in G i r n a r 1 ms a n d SO
plants in Girnar 1.
these F 1 p l a n t s w a s d o n e . T h e p o d s h a r v e s t e d from each
p l a n t w e r e k e p t separately. T h e i n h e r i t a n c e studies based
o n the F 2 results w i l l be s t u d i e d i n r a i n y season 2 0 0 0 .
Q u a n t i t a t i v e o b s e r v a t i o n s w e r e r e c o r d e d o n 100 m a l e
sterile plants a n d o n 5 0 plants i n parent G i r n a r 1 ( T a b l e 2 ) .
T h e m a l e sterile m u t a n t G i r n a r 1 m s w a s d w a r f h a v i n g
s m a l l a n d r o u n d e d leaves. T h e n u m b e r o f nodes o n the
m a i n a x i s w a s same i n b o t h m u t a n t a n d parent; i n t e m o d e s
w e r e shorter i n m u t a n t p l a n t s a n d hence r e s u l t e d i n short
stature.
References
B u r t o n , G . W . , and H a n n a , W . W . 1976. E t h i d i u m b r o m i d e
induced cytoplasmic male sterility in pearl millet. C r o p
Science 16:731-732.
J a n , C . C . , a n d R u t g e r , J . N . 1988. M i t o m y c i n C - a n d
s t r e p t o m y c i n - i n d u c e d m a l e s t e r i l i t y i n c u l t i v a t e d sunf l o w e r . C r o p Science 2 8 : 7 9 2 - 7 9 5 .
M a l i k , C . P . , and C h a b b r a , N e e l a m . 1976. H o r m o n a l regulation of pollen germination and pollen tube elongation in
Arachis hypogaea Reitz. P r o c e e d i n g s of the I n d i a n A c a d e m y o f Sciences, Section B 8 4 : 1 0 1 - 1 0 8 .
T Radhakrishnan and P Paria (National Research Centre
for Groundnut, Ivnagar Road, PB No. 5, Junagadh 362 0 0 1 ,
Gujarat, India)
T h e a m o u n t a n d nature o f genetic v a r i a b i l i t y i n a p o p u l a t i o n
d e p e n d i n part o n its m a t i n g s y s t e m . I n a d d i t i o n t o selff e r t i l i z a t i o n , a u t o g a m o u s species u n d e r g o v a r y i n g degree
o f intermating. A l l a r d and W o r k m a n (1963) and H a r d i n g
a n d T u c k e r ( 1 9 6 4 ) have g i v e n m e t h o d s f o r e s t i m a t i n g o u t c r o s s i n g w h e n s e l e c t i o n i s present a n d / o r e q u i l i b r i u m
gene frequencies c a n n o t be assumed. These m e t h o d s are
based o n estimates o f the f r e q u e n c y o f d o m i n a n t i n d i v i d u a l s a p p e a r i n g i n the p r o g e n y o f recessive i n d i v i d u a l s
t a k e n at r a n d o m from the p o p u l a t i o n . G r o u n d n u t (Arachis
hypogaea) is m a i n l y a s e l f - p o l l i n a t e d species. T h e e x t e n t
o f n a t u r a l c r o s s - p o l l i n a t i o n i n t h i s species w a s h i g h l y
variable ( H a m m o n s and L e u c k 1966, C u l p et al. 1968, C o f f e l t
1989, N i g a m et a l . 1990). W h e t h e r c r o s s - p o l l i n a t i o n is
r a n d o m o r n o t has n o t been s t u d i e d s o far. T h e p u r p o s e o f
the present i n v e s t i g a t i o n w a s t o s t u d y the m a t i n g system
i n v o l v e d i n c e r t a i n a r t i f i c i a l p o p u l a t i o n o f t h i s species
u s i n g d i f f e r e n t m a r k e r s a n d seasons a n d years.
True breeding "golden y e l l o w l e a f and "puckered
l e a f mutants were planted w i t h T A G 2 4 (homozygous
d o m i n a n t ) i n alternate r o w s i n separate p l o t s . T h e s p a c i n g
i n a l l the p l o t s w a s 3 0 c m x 1 0 c m . T h e e x p e r i m e n t w a s
c o n d u c t e d a t the N a t i o n a l Research C e n t r e f o r G r o u n d n u t ,
Junagadh, I n d i a , i n r a i n y season ( k h a r i f ) a n d s u m m e r c r o p
season o f 1997 a n d r a i n y season o f 1998. Since m u t a n t s
and the h o m o z y g o u s normals ( T A G 2 4 ) were e q u a l l y
f r e q u e n t i n b o t h the a r t i f i c i a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d p o p u l a t i o n s ,
the gene f r e q u e n c y ' q ' i n b o t h the cases w a s a s s u m e d t o
be 0.5.
The estimation procedure developed by H a r d i n g and
T u c k e r ( 1 9 6 4 ) w a s a d o p t e d . L e t ' a ' a n d ' b ' d e n o t e the
n u m b e r o f heterozygotes and recessive h o m o z y g o t e s
r e s p e c t i v e l y i n the o f f s p r i n g s generated b y recessivse
homozygotes of a population. The m a x i m u m likelihood
( M L ) estimate o f the o u t c r o s s i n g p r o p o r t i o n i s t h e n g i v e n
by:
U p a d h y a y a , H . D . , a n d N i g a m , S . N . 1996. I d e n t i f i c a t i o n
and inheritance of male sterility in groundnut (Arachis
hypogaea L . ) . E u p h y t i c a 8 8 : 2 2 7 - 2 3 0 .
I A N 20, 2000 15
in golden y e l l o w leaf mutant (x21df = 23.2; P<0.001). T h e
w i t h variance:
differences i n degree o f seasonal f l u c t u a t i o n s i n outcrossi n g rate a m o n g t h e t w o m u t a n t s m i g h t b e t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f
v a r i a b l e g e n o t y p e x e n v i r o n m e n t i n t e r a c t i o n i n these t w o
mutants. The experiments w i t h b o t h the mutants w e r e
H o w e v e r , s i n c e n o t a l l t h e crosses w i l l b e o b s e r v e d ,
conducted in a c o m m o n experimental f i e l d in both the
a n d a s h o m o g e n e o u s m a t i n g s w i l l g i v e rise t o h o m o z y g o t e s ,
seasons. H e n c e , t h e o b s e r v e d d e g r e e o f s e a s o n a l f l u c t u a -
a n adjusted M L estimate o f total outcrossing,
tions o f outcrossing i n t h e m cannot b e ascribed t o d i f f e r e n c e s
given
b e l o w , should instead be used:
i n insect ( p o l l i n a t o r ) populations available i n the e x p e r i m e n t a l
plots. H o w e v e r , the preferential visit o f insects t o selected
f l o w e r forms cannot be ruled out and possible differences
i n t h e f l o w e r f o r m i n t h e m u t a n t s are s u p p o s e d t o b e
genetically controlled.
The outcrossing during rainy
w h e r e q is the gene f r e q u e n c y of selected h o m o z y g o t e .
season i n t w o years i n g o l d e n y e l l o w l e a f w a s h o m o g e n e o u s
P r o v i d e d q i s k n o w n , t h e M L estimate o f v a r
(X21df=0.0059;P>0.005)
the variance
T h e composite estimate o f outcrossing
o f a , can b e computed f r o m :
for puckered
leaf (0.0330) was almost three times higher than that in
golden y e l l o w leaf (0.0116). The approximate expected
range
due to random
fluctuation leaf was
- 0 . 0 0 6 2 to 0.0294 for golden y e l l o w and was - 0 . 0 1 0 6 to
w h e r e p + q = 1 a n d N = a + b . S i n c e , q = p = 0 . 5 is k n o w n a n d
0 . 0 7 6 6 f o r p u c k e r e d leaf. B u t i f t h e o b s e r v e d f l u c t u a t i o n s
d i d n o t e x c e e d 0 . 1 5 i n t h e present s t u d y , t h e a b o v e f o r m u l a
w e r e used t h e a p p r o x i m a t e r a n g e
was utilized for computation of variance of
l o w leaf and puckered leaf was - 0 . 0 0 1 0 to 0.0242 and
T a b l e 1 presents the frequencies of heterozygotes (a),
total o f f s p r i n g s ( N ) , estimates o f outcrossing
and
for golden yel-
0.0182 to 0.0478 respectively where s2
ass2
= [1/(n-1] [
-(1/n)
was computed
] ; n = 3 for golden yel-
for five artificially con-
l o w l e a f a n d n = 2 f o r p u c k e r e d leaf. T h e observed f l u c t u a t i o n
structed populations of t w o different leaf markers in t w o
i n a f o r g o l d e n y e l l o w l e a f w a s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1.5 t i m e s
their standard deviations
d i f f e r e n t seasons a n d years. T h e estimates o f o u t c r o s s i n g ,
less t h a n t h e f l u c t u a t i o n s e x p e c t e d o n t h e basis o f r a n d o m
p o o l e d o v e r y e a r s a n d seasons, f o r g o l d e n y e l l o w l e a f
chance alone
(0.0116) and puckered leaf (0.0330) were heterogeneous
2
a s r e v e a l e d b y x test ( x
2
S i m i l a r l y for puckered leaf
w a s 4 . 4 5 . I n b o m the m u t a n t s , the o b s e r v e d f l u c t u a -
= 102.8; P < 0 . 0 0 1 ) . Seasonal
t i o n s w e r e less t h a n t h e f l u c t u a t i o n s e x p e c t e d d u e t o
v a r i a t i o n i n o u t c r o s s i n g rates i n p u c k e r e d l e a f m u t a n t w a s
chance alone. Hence, it c o u l d be c o n c l u d e d that the o u t -
n e g l i g i b l e ( x 2 1 d f = 0 . 7 6 9 1 ; P > 0 . 0 0 5 ) w h i l e i t w a s considerable
crossing in all the populations was a r a n d o m event.
1df
T a b l e 1 . E s t i m a t i o n o f outcrossing
i n g r o u n d n u t using g o l d e n y e l l o w l e a f a n d p u c k e r e d l e a f m u t a n t s a s m a r k e r s a t
Junagadh, India1.
Marker
Year/Season
N
q
G o l d e n y e l l o w leaf
1997 rainy season
8
1147
0.5
0.0139
1997 summer crop season
9
5822
0.5
0.0031
0.0185
126
17714
0.5
0.0142
0.0105
143
24683
0.5
0.0116
0.0089
12
619
0.5
0.0388
0.0563
56
3506
0.5
0.0319
0.0237
68
4125
0.5
0.0330
0.0218
1998 rainy season
Total
Puckered leaf
1997 summer crop season
1998 rainy season
Total
1.
16
a
a = Frequency of heterozygotes; N = T o t a l o f f s p r i n g s ; q = Gene f r e q u e n c y ;
I A N 20, 2000
* Standard deviation.
0.0416
T h e m a t i n g s y s t e m i s c o m m o n l y c o n s i d e r e d t o b e the
c h i e f f a c t o r d e t e r m i n i n g the genetic structure a n d e v o l u t i o n a r y p o t e n t i a l i n a p o p u l a t i o n . T h e m a t i n g system o f
present p o p u l a t i o n s of A. hypogaea w a s a m i x e d system
o f r a n d o m m a t i n g a n d s e l f - f e r t i l i z a t i o n . O n e o f the i m p o r tant features o f the v a r i a b i l i t y i n i n b r e e d i n g species i s
g e n e t i c d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n b e t w e e n p o p u l a t i o n s w i t h i n the
species. C l i n a l v a r i a t i o n i s f r e q u e n t l y o b s e r v e d i n assoc i a t i o n w i t h p r o g r e s s i v e changes i n r a i n f a l l , t e m p e r a t u r e ,
a n d o t h e r factors o f the p h y s i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t a n d such
l o c a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n appears t o p r o v i d e the scope o f massive
storage o f genetic v a r i a b i l i t y . I t i s t r u e that p o p u l a t i o n
s t r u c t u r e i n i n b r e e d i n g species i s m u c h m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d
t h a n has been c o m m o n l y s u p p o s e d a n d p r o b a b l y i t does
n o t t a k e the same f o r m i n a l l i n b r e e d i n g species o r even i n
d i f f e r e n t p o p u l a t i o n s o f the same species. F o r e x a m p l e , i n
Phaseolus lunatus, heterozygotes and h omozygotes of S/s
l o c u s w e r e e q u a l i n fitness w h e n a l l three g e n o t y p e s w e r e
equally frequent in population ( H a r d i n g et al. 1966). H o w e v e r ,
w h e n heterozygotes w e r e rare in the p o p u l a t i o n , their fitness
increased t o h o m o z y g o t e s . Thus, the maintenance o f stable
n o n t r i v i a l p o l y m o r p h i s m depends on a c o m p l e x set of interaction between genetic factors, m a t i n g systems, and
e c o l o g i c a l factors. T h e observed v a r i a b i l i t y o f o u t c r o s s i n g
in g r o u n d n u t under different ecological-conditions (different
years a n d seasons) i n d i f f e r e n t m a r k e r stocks m a y w e l l
c o n t r i b u t e t o a c o m p l e x p o p u l a t i o n structure. W o r k m a n
( 1 9 6 4 ) a n d A l l a r d e t a l . ( 1 9 6 8 ) have discussed i n d e t a i l the
e v o l u t i o n a r y consequences a n d s i g n i f i c a n c e o f such a
m a t i n g system.
References
A l l a r d , R . W . , J a i n , S . K . , and W o r k m a n , P . L . 1968. T h e
genetics o f i n b r e e d i n g species. A d v a n c e s i n G e n e t i c s
14:55-131.
A l l a r d , R . W . , and W o r k m a n , P . L . 1963. Population studies
i n p r e d o m i n a n t l y s e l f - p o l l i n a t e d species. I V . Seasonal
f l u c t u a t i o n i n e s t i m a t e d v a l u e s o f genetic parameters i n
l i m a bean p o p u l a t i o n . E v o l u t i o n 1 8 : 4 7 0 - 4 8 0 .
C o f f e l t , T . A . 1989. N a t u r a l crossing o f peanut i n V i r g i n i a .
Peanut Science 1 6 : 4 6 - 4 8 .
C u l p , T . W . , B a i l e y , W . K . , and H a m m o n s , R . O . 1968.
N a t u r a l h y b r i d i z a t i o n o f peanuts, Arachis hypogaea L . i n
V i r g i n i a . C r o p Science 8 : 1 0 9 - 1 1 1 .
H a m m o n s , R . O . , and L e u c k , D . B . 1966. N a t u r a l crossp o l l i n a t i o n o f t h e peanut, Arachis hypogaea L . , i n presence
o f bees a n d t h r i p s . A g r o n o m y J o u r n a l 5 8 : 3 9 6 .
H a r d i n g , J . , A l l a r d , R . W . , and S m e l t z e r , D . G . 1966.
P o p u l a t i o n studies i n p r e d o m i n a n t l y s e l f p o l l i n a t e d species. I X . F r e q u e n c y d e p e n d a n t s e l e c t i o n i n Phaseolus
lunatus. Proceedings o f the N a t i o n a l A c a d e m y o f Sciences
o f the U n i t e d States o f A m e r i c a 5 6 : 9 9 - 1 0 4 .
H a r d i n g , J . , and T u c k e r , C . L . 1964. Quantitative studies o n
m a t i n g systems. I . E v i d e n c e f o r the n o n r a n d o m n e s s o f
o u t c r o s s i n g in Phaseolus lunatus. H e r i d i t y 1 9 : 3 6 9 - 3 8 1 .
N i g a m , S . N . , V a s u d e v a R a o , M . J . , and G i b b o n s , R . W .
1990. A r t i f i c i a l h y b r i d i z a t i o n i n g r o u n d n u t . I n f o r m a t i o n
B u l l e t i n n o . 29. Patancheru 502 324, A n d h r a Pradesh, I n d i a :
I n t e r n a t i o n a l C r o p s Research I n s t i t u t e f o r the S e m i - A r i d
Tropics. 28 pp.
W o r k m a n , P . L . 1964. T h e maintenance o f h e t e r o z y g o s i t y
b y p a r t i a l n e g a t i v e assortative m a t i n g . G e n e t i c s 50:1369—
1382.
Genetics and Interrelationship of O i l and
Protein Contents in Crosses Involving
Confectionery Genotypes of G r o u n d n u t
D L Parmar, A L Rathna K u m a r , and P S Bharodia
(National Research Centre for Groundnut, Ivnagar Road,
PO Box N o . 5, Junagadh 362 0 0 1 , Gujarat, India)
W i t h the c h a n g i n g scenario i n the g l o b a l trade i n g e n e r a l ,
a n d i n a g r i c u l t u r e i n p a r t i c u l a r , the e m p h a s i s i n the
groundnut breeding program in India is shifting towards
the d e v e l o p m e n t o f large-seeded g e n o t y p e s w i t h l o w o i l ,
h i g h protein, and h i g h sugar contents to meet the standards
f o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l trade. A n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f r e l a t i o n s h i p
a n d genetic c o n t r o l o f o i l a n d p r o t e i n c o n t e n t s s h o u l d
f a c i l i t a t e the b r e e d i n g strategies t o select f o r i m p r o v e d
seed q u a l i t y traits. H e n c e genetic analysis w a s c a r r i e d o u t
o n 2 8 n o n - r e c i p r o c a l d i a l l e l crosses i n v o l v i n g large-seeded
confectionery Virginia genotypes o f groundnut f o l l o w i n g
H a y m a n ' s ( 1 9 5 4 ) approach. T h e F 1 s and F 2 s of these crosses
w e r e g r o w n i n a r a n d o m i z e d b l o c k d e s i g n w i t h three
replications.
Data on protein and o i l contents were recorded on
t w e n t y r a n d o m l y selected plants i n F 1 a n d F 2 g e n e r a t i o n s
f o r each cross. P r o t e i n c o n t e n t w a s e s t i m a t e d based o n
t o t a l n i t r o g e n c o n t e n t o f seed b y m i c r o K j e l d a h l m e t h o d
(Jackson 1967), and o i l content was estimated f o l l o w i n g
specific g r a v i t y m e t h o d ( M i s r a et al. 1993). Correlation
c o e f f i c i e n t s a n d h e r i t a b i l i t y estimates ( i n n a r r o w sense)
were estimated.
I A N 20, 2000 17
T a b l e 1 . E s t i m a t i o n o f genetic c o m p o n e n t s o f v a r i a n c e f o r o i l a n d p r o t e i n contents i n g r o u n d n u t
Genetic components of variance 1
Heritability
(narrow sense)
Charater
Generation
Oil
F1
H1
D
11.21*
2.15
±1.55
F2
2.16
±0.98
Protein
F1
F2
1.
h2
9.99*
0.50
1.63
±0.08
±0.67
±3.57
±0.11
54.67*
36.67**
±9.02
±7.85
76.83**
35.40**
±8.11
±18.65
F
H2
64.18**
±16.23
0.05
7.76
±1.32
±4.64
36.12*
±10.88
12.75
(H1/D)1/2
(%)
t2
-
18.3
6.004
-
18.0
3.263
1.47
35.5
6.153
3.03
66.7
0.061
±19.17
35.40**
324.58**
194.37**
17.63*
127.22**
±4.70
±43.20
±37.58
±6.30
±22.20
* S i g n i f i c a n t at P = 0 . 0 5 % ; ** S i g n i f i c a n t at P = 0 . 0 1 % .
G e n e t i c analysis o f o i l c o n t e n t i n d i c a t e d the s i g n i f i c a n c e
o f o n l y n o n - f i x a b l e genetic c o m p o n e n t s o f v a r i a n c e ( H 1 a n d
Evaluation of Bold-seeded G r o u n d n u t
Accessions for Confectionery Attributes
H2) in b o t h F1 and F2 generations indicating the preponderance o f n o n - a d d i t i v e gene effects i n the inheritance o f
o i l c o n t e n t ( T a b l e 1). B o t h a d d i t i v e a n d n o n - a d d i t i v e
genetic variances were f o u n d important in the inheritance
o f p r o t e i n c o n t e n t . H o w e v e r , n o n - a d d i t i v e genetic v a r i a n c e s
w e r e higher in m a g n i t u d e than additive components in the
t w o generations studied. O v e r dominance [(H1/D)1/2] was
observed for protein content in both F1 and F2 generations.
T h e heritability estimate f o r o i l content was l o w and for
protein content was moderate to h i g h in b o t h the generations. O i l and protein contents showed strong negative
relationship (r = - 0 . 7 4 ) indicating that selection f o r l o w o i l
should result in h i g h protein content.
B r e e d i n g procedures that m o p u p n o n - a d d i t i v e variance
effectively, like biparental m a t i n g or reciprocal recurrent
s e l e c t i o n , s h o u l d b e f o l l o w e d t o select f o r h i g h p r o t e i n o r
l o w o i l content ( B r i m and B u r t o n 1979).
K Rajgopal, K C h a n d r a n , J B M i s r a , P K Bhalodia,
and R S M a t h u r (National Research Centre for Groundnut,
Ivnagar Road, PB N o . 5, Junagadh 362 0 0 1 , Gujarat, India)
A l t h o u g h g r o u n d n u t in I n d i a is p r i m a r i l y used as an o i l s e e d , i t i s a l s o c o n s u m e d d i r e c t l y a s f o o d b e c a u s e o f its
palatability. Besides o i l (about 4 8 % ) and protein (about
2 2 % ) , g r o u n d n u t seeds c o n t a i n c a r b o h y d r a t e s ( 1 0 % ) ,
minerals ( 3 % ) , and B complex vitamins especially t h i a m i n
( 1 m g 1 0 0 g - 1 ) a n d n i a c i n ( 1 7 m g 1 0 0 g - 1 ) - H a n d - p i c k e d selected
( H P S ) seeds o f g r o u n d n u t are i m p o r t a n t f o r e x p o r t . T h e
seed size ( s e e d m a s s ) i s o n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t t r a d e
a t t r i b u t e f o r e x p o r t o f H P S g r o u n d n u t . A m i n i m u m mass o f
44 g f o r 100 seeds is e s s e n t i a l f o r a g r o u n d n u t s a m p l e to
q u a l i f y its g r a d i n g a s H P S ( S a n k a r a R e d d i 1 9 8 8 ) . O f l a t e ,
other sources o f o i l have started c o m p e t i n g w i t h g r o u n d n u t i n I n d i a . F o r e n s u r i n g a better p r o f i t a b i l i t y t o g r o u n d n u t
Reference
f a r m e r s , i t i s d e s i r a b l e t o f i n d a l t e r n a t e uses o f g r o u n d n u t f o r f o o d a n d f o o d p r o d u c t s . T h e l a r g e s e e d size i s o f
B r i m , C . A . , and B u r t o n , G . W . 1979. Recurrent selection
in soybeans. I I . Selection f o r increased percent protein in
considerable importance for direct consumption.
A m o n g the cultivated f o r m s , varieties b e l o n g i n g t o the
seeds. C r o p S c i e n c e 1 9 : 4 9 4 - 4 9 8 .
s u b s p hypogaea v a r hypogaea h a v e
H a y m a n , B . I . 1 9 5 4 . T h e o r y a n d a n a l y s i s o f d i a l l e l crosses.
v a r i a t i o n i n seed mass ( 2 1 - 1 1 6 g 1 0 0 - 1 seeds) i n t h e p r i m a r y
Genetics 3 9 : 7 8 9 - 8 0 9 .
shown
considerable
gene p o o l (Bhagat et al. 1985, Simpson et al. 1992). T h u s ,
there exists a considerable scope f o r i m p r o v e m e n t of the
Jackson, M X . 1967. Soil chemical analysis. N e w D e l h i ,
India: Prentice H a l l (India). 4 9 8 pp.
M i s r a , J . B . , Y a d a v , S . K . , and C h a a h a n , S . K . 1993. Inverse
cultivated groundnut cultivars for confectionery purposes.
O f t h e 118 b o l d - s e e d e d a c c e s s i o n s e v a l u a t e d f o r t w o
years, 12 accessions w e r e f u r t h e r evaluated a l o n g w i t h
relationship between o i l content and specific gravity of
c o n t r o l s f o r p o d y i e l d a n d seed q u a l i t y a t t h e N a t i o n a l
g r o u n d n u t kernels. Journal o f the Science o f F o o d and
Research Centre f o r G r o u n d n u t ( N R C G ) , Junagadh, India.
Agriculture 61:231-234.
T h e t r i a l w a s c o n d u c t e d f o r t w o y e a r s d u r i n g r a i n y season
18
U N 20, 2000
T a b l e 1 . P o d y i e l d a n d q u a l i t y a t t r i b u t e s o f some bold-seeded accessions pooled o v e r t w o y e a r s ( 1 9 9 1 a n d 1 9 9 2 ) .
Physical attributes
N R C G no.
Chemical attributes
Other
Pod y i e l d
Shelling
Sound mature
100-seed
Oil
Protein
Sucrose
identity
( k g ha -1 )
(%)
seeds (%)
mass (g)
(%)
(%)
(%)
V i r g i n i a bunch
7276
J L 55
1593
68.2
86.3
57.2
49.4
22.2
5.3
7239
JL 60
1515
67.9
87.7
54.1
50.6
21.1
6.2
8939
B A U 12
2095
64.8
90.5
69.9
50.0
20.3
5.5
5505
RS 1
2318
67.2
82.8
56.3
50.5
20.7
6.2
839
N C A C 1855
1613
67.8
82.7
54.8
51.4
21.1
4.9
2863
U F 780-14
1415
66.6
81.1
54.2
50.7
23.5
5.1
1758
67.1
84.1
56.2
50.5
21.4
5.4
Mean
Virginia runner
2746
Florispan runner
1240
66.6
78.3
52.9
50.7
21.1
5.6
698
N C A C 2831
1437
65.6
81.0
50.2
50.3
22.8
6.0
5850
Var61-R
1650
60.5
82.3
57.5
48.4
19.4
6.1
734
N C A C 324
1428
66.4
79.9
49.4
50.6
22.3
6.0
912
N C A C 2938
1498
65.9
78.3
53.7
49.1
19.3
7.1
750
N C A C 6755
1607
66.2
79.3
56.3
48.6
22.0
6.0
1476
65.2
79.7
53.1
49.4
21.2
6.2
Control
G G 11
1401
67.1
77.5
46.8
51.0
21.1
4.7
Control
M 13
Mean
1320
65.5
78.7
51.5
48.1
20.8
SEm
±86
±1.3
±2.1
±1.6
-
-
-
6.6
C D (0.05)
311
3.6
5.9
4.6
-
-
-
o f 1991 and 1992 i n r a n d o m i z e d b l o c k design w i t h three
n o s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i a t i o n a m o n g accessions (except f o r
r e p l i c a t i o n s . A 4 - m p l o t size w i t h i n t e r r o w a n d i n t r a - r o w
N R C G 5850). T h e S M S percentage was highest f o r N R C G
spacings of 60 cm and 10 c m , respectively was adopted.
8 9 3 9 ( 9 0 . 5 % ) and lowest f o r c o n t r o l G G 1 1 ( 7 7 . 5 % ) . N R C G s
Each plot comprised three rows. Standard cultural prac-
8 9 3 9 , 7 2 3 9 , and 7276 gave significantly higher S M S than
tices w e r e f o l l o w e d to raise a g o o d c r o p . Observations on
b o t h the controls. T h e 100-seed mass r a n g e d from 4 6 . 8 g
p o d y i e l d , s h e l l i n g p e r c e n t a g e , s o u n d m a t u r e seeds ( S M S ) ,
for GG 11 to 69.9 g for N R C G 8939. N R C G s 8939, 5 8 5 0 ,
a n d 1 0 0 - s e e d m a s s w e r e r e c o r d e d . T h e seed s a m p l e s o f
7 2 7 6 , 5 5 0 5 , and 7 5 0 gave a s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r 100-seed
o n e season w e r e a n a l y z e d f o r o i l , p r o t e i n , a n d s u c r o s e
m a s s t h a n t h e c o n t r o l M 13. T h e o i l c o n t e n t r a n g e d f r o m
c o n t e n t s f o l l o w i n g K u c k a n d St. A n g e l o ( 1 9 8 0 ) , B a l l e n t i n e
4 8 . 1 % ( M 13) t o 5 1 . 4 % ( N R C G 8 3 9 ) , p r o t e i n c o n t e n t f r o m
(1957), and A s h w e l l (1957), respectively.
T h e average p o d y i e l d r a n g e d f r o m 1 2 4 0 k g h a
1 9 . 3 % ( N R C G 9 1 2 ) t o 2 3 . 5 % ( N R C G 2 8 6 3 ) , a n d sucrose
-1
to 2318
f r o m 4 . 7 % ( G G 1 1 ) t o 7 . 1 % ( N R C G 912).
k g ha*'. A c c e s s i o n s N R C G s 5 5 0 5 , 8 9 3 9 , a n d 5 8 5 0 p r o d u c e d
T h e S M S p e r c e n t a g e a n d t h e o i l c o n t e n t o f seeds o f
s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r p o d y i e l d t h a n c o n t r o l s ( T a b l e 1). A l l
Virginia bunch genotypes were significantly higher than
t h e accessions s t u d i e d s h o w e d u n i f o r m m a t u r i t y . A l t h o u g h
those o f Virginia runner genotypes w h i l e the reverse was
t h e a c c e s s i o n s i n t e r a c t e d w i t h seasons, i t d i d n o t m u c h
true f o r sucrose content.
affect the relative rankings f o r p o d y i e l d (detailed data not
F o r c o n f e c t i o n e r y purpose, besides h i g h e r 100-seed
presented). N R C G 5505 ranked first and N R C G 5850
m a s s a n d S M S , seeds w i t h l o w e r o i l c o n t e n t a n d h i g h e r
r a n k e d f o u r t h i n b o t h seasons. H o w e v e r , N R C G 8 9 3 9
p r o t e i n a n d sucrose c o n t e n t s are p r e f e r r e d . T h e accessions
ranked second in 1991 and f o u r t h in 1992. Shelling per-
N R C G s 2 8 6 3 , 5505, 7 2 7 6 , and 8 9 3 9 have l o w o i l , h i g h p r o t e i n ,
centage was relatively n a r r o w w i t h a m i n i m u m o f 6 0 . 5 %
a n d h i g h sucrose c o n t e n t s a n d w e r e i d e n t i f i e d f o r c o n f e c -
for N R C G 5850 and m a x i m u m o f 6 8 . 2 % for N R C G 7276, w i t h
t i o n e r y purpose. T h e latter t w o accessions also p r o d u c e d
I A N 20, 2000
19
h i g h e r p o d y i e l d . T h e y m a y t h e r e f o r e b e used f o r g e n e t i c
e n h a n c e m e n t f o r i m p r o v i n g t h e seed q u a l i t y traits a l o n g
with pod yield.
A c k n o w l e d g m e n t . T h e a u t h o r s are g r a t e f u l t o M r S u g a d
S i n g h f o r p r o v i d i n g t e c h n i c a l assistance.
References
A s h w e l l , G . 1957. C o l o r i m e t r i c analysis o f sugars. Pages
7 3 - 1 0 5 i n M e t h o d s o f e n z y m o l o g y , V o l . 3 ( C o l o w i c k , S.P.,
a n d K a p l a n , N . O . , eds.). N e w Y o r k , U S A : A c a d e m i c Press.
Ballentine, R . 1957. D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f total nitrogen and
a m m o n i a . Pages 9 8 4 - 9 9 5 i n M e t h o d s o f e n z y m o l o g y , V o l .
3 ( C o l o w i c k , S.P., a n d K a p l a n , N . O . , eds.). N e w Y o r k ,
U S A : A c a d e m i c Press.
B h a g a t , N . R . , A h m a d , T . , L a l w a n i , H . B . , and S i n g h , H .
1985. C a t a l o g u e o n g e r m p l a s m e v a l u a t i o n o f c u l t i v a t e d
g r o u n d n u t s ( A r a c h i s hypogaea L . ) . J u n a g a d h , I n d i a :
N a t i o n a l Research C e n t r e f o r G r o u n d n u t . 2 0 5 p p .
K u c k , J . A . , and St. A n g e l o , A . J . 1980. I m p r o v e d m e t h o d
f o r q u a n t i t a t i v e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f o i l c o n t e n t i n peanuts
a n d peanut products. Journal o f the A m e r i c a n O i l C h e m i s t s '
Society 5 7 : 1 2 8 - 1 2 9 .
S a n k a r a R e d d i , G . H . 1 9 8 8 . C u l t i v a t i o n , storage a n d
m a r k e t i n g . Pages 3 1 8 - 3 8 3 i n G r o u n d n u t ( R e d d y , P.S.,
ed.). N e w D e l h i , India: I n d i a n C o u n c i l o f A g r i c u l t u r a l
Research.
S i m p s o n , C . E . , H i g g i n s , D . L . , T h o m a s . , G . D . , and
H o w a r d , E . R 1992. C a t a l o g o f passport data a n d m i n i m u m
d e s c r i p t o r s o f Arachis hypogaea L . g e r m p l a s m c o l l e c t e d
in South A m e r i c a 1 9 7 7 - 1 9 8 6 . College Station, Texas,
U S A : T e x a s A g r i c u l t u r a l E x p e r i m e n t Station, Texas A & M
University. 247 pp.
Evaluation of Some Confectionery T y p e
Advanced Breeding Lines of G r o u n d n u t
P Manivel, R K Mathur, A Bandyopadhyay, M Y Samdur,
and J B M i s r a (National Research Centre for Groundnut,
Ivnagar Road, PB N o . 5, Junagadh 362 0 0 1 , Gujarat, India)
G r o u n d n u t i s one o f the important oilseed crops o f I n d i a
a n d also a n i m p o r t a n t e x p o r t a b l e a g r i c u l t u r a l c o m m o d i t y .
W i t h a n a n n u a l g r o u n d n u t p r o d u c t i o n o f about 8 3 m i l l i o n t ,
I n d i a ranks second, after C h i n a , a m o n g g r o u n d n u t p r o d u c i n g
20 I A N 20, 2000
countries and contributes about 2 6 . 7 % to the w o r l d
g r o u n d n u t p r o d u c t i o n . I n d i a ' s share i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l e x p o r t
o f s h e l l e d g r o u n d n u t s has b e e n g r o w i n g f o r the last f e w
years a n d w i t h a n e x p o r t o f 2 5 5 , 0 0 0 1 i n 1 9 9 7 , i t ' s share i s
2 2 % ( F A O 1999).
W i t h the g r o w t h o f o t h e r c o n v e n t i o n a l a n d n o n - c o n v e n t i o n a l v e g e t a b l e o i l s e e d c r o p s i n t h e past t w o decades
i n I n d i a , t h e pressure o n g r o u n d n u t c r o p a s a source o f
vegetable o i l has eased c o n s i d e r a b l y a n d i t c a n n o w b e
l o o k e d u p o n a s a n i t e m o f h i g h l y n u t r i t i v e f o o d besides a n
o i l . H o w e v e r , i t w o u l d b e necessary t o d e v e l o p g r o u n d nut varieties m o r e suitable for direct c o n s u m p t i o n and
p r o c e s s i n g . H a n d - p i c k e d a n d selected ( H P S ) g r o u n d n u t s
are p r e m i u m e d i b l e grade n u t s a n d i n great d e m a n d a l l
o v e r the w o r l d . V a r i o u s p h y s i c a l , sensory, c h e m i c a l , a n d
n u t r i t i o n a l factors d e t e r m i n e the q u a l i t y o f e d i b l e g r o u n d n u t ( N i g a m e t a l . 1989). G r o u n d n u t w i t h large seed, l o w o i l
b u t w i t h h i g h oleic acid/linoleic a c i d ( O / L ) ratio i s preferred.
T h e r e f o r e the N a t i o n a l Research C e n t r e f o r G r o u n d n u t
( N R C G ) , Junagadh, Gujarat, I n d i a has undertaken a p r o g r a m
to develop cultivars m o r e suitable for direct c o n s u m p t i o n
and processing. T w e l v e advanced breeding lines w e r e
evaluated a l o n g w i t h 3 c o n t r o l s ( B 9 5 , S o m n a t h , a n d I C G V
8 9 2 1 1 ) f o r p o d y i e l d a n d seed q u a l i t y t r a i t s .
A r e p l i c a t e d t r i a l w a s c o n d u c t e d i n r a i n y season
( k h a r i f ) 1998. Seeds o f each g e n o t y p e w e r e s o w n i n 5 - r o w
plots ( r o w length 5 m; interrow spacing 60 c m ; and plant
s p a c i n g 1 0 c m ) . Standard c u l t u r a l practices r e c o m m e n d e d
f o r the r e g i o n w e r e f o l l o w e d f o r r a i s i n g the c r o p . T h e c r o p
w a s harvested a t 1 1 0 - 1 2 0 days d e p e n d i n g o n its m a t u r i t y .
Observations on p o d y i e l d , and physical and chemical
characteristics o f seeds w e r e r e c o r d e d . T h e s o u n d m a t u r e
seeds o f each g e n o t y p e w e r e a n a l y z e d f o r o i l ( K u c k a n d
St. A n g e l o 1 9 8 0 ) , p r o t e i n ( B a l l e n t i n e 1 9 5 7 ) , f r e e a m i n o
a c i d (Spies 1957), a n d sugar ( A s h w e l l , 1957).
S i g n i f i c a n t g e n o t y p i c differences w e r e o b s e r v e d i n p o d
y i e l d a n d seed q u a l i t y t r a i t s ( T a b l e 1). P o d y i e l d o f P B S
2 9 0 1 7 was h i g h ( 2 8 8 6 kg ha-1 c o m p a r e d to the c o n t r o l
I C G V 8 9 2 1 1 ( 1 6 3 8 k g ha - 1 ). T h e s h e l l i n g p e r c e n t a g e also
differed significantly and ranged from 5 8 . 2 % (PBS 19003)
t o 7 0 . 7 % ( P B S 29026). A s the rankings o f the genotypes
for p o d y i e l d and s h e l l i n g percentage differed, the d i f f e r ences i n p o d y i e l d w e r e n o t p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y r e f l e c t e d i n
t h e seed y i e l d . T h e g e n o t y p e P B S 2 9 0 1 7 h a d h i g h seed
y i e l d ( 2 0 0 0 k g ha - 1 ) c o m p a r e d t o t h e best c o n t r o l S o m n a t h
( 1 5 5 5 k g ha - 1 ). T h e 100-seed mass o f t h e test g e n o t y p e s
and controls ranged from 53.9 g ( P B S 2 9 0 3 6 ) to 76.7 g
( I C G V 89211). N o n e o f the genotypes were superior over
t h e best c o n t r o l ( I C G V 8 9 2 1 1 ) . H o w e v e r , P B S 2 9 0 1 7 a n d
P B S 2 9 0 2 0 w e r e s t a t i s t i c a l l y o n p a r w i t h t h e s e c o n d best
control, Somnath.
T a b l e 1 . Y i e l d a n d q u a l i t y characteristics o f confectionery g r o u n d n u t genotypes.
Pod
Growth
Genotype
PBS 29017
Seed
100-seed
Shelling
yield
mass
( k g ha )
(%)
( k g ha -1 )
(8)
Oil
FAA
RS
69.3
2000
69.3
51.6
26.0
5.66
0.21
0.23
yield
habit
Pedigree
-1
Virginia
M 13 x N C A c 17500
2886
Chemical attributes 1 (%)
Protein Sucrose
PBS 29031
Virginia
M 13 x N C A c 17278
2715
70.2
1909
61.1
53.3
20.1
9.02
0.29
0.35
PBS 11039
Spanish
Dh 3-30 x N C A c 2214
2752
68.0
1874
58.6
53.8
32.9
7.39
0.33
0.16
PBS 20910
Virginia
M 13 x N C A c 17278
2576
70.4
1817
62.7
51.5
26.3
8.17
0.38
0.26
PBS 29020
Virginia
M 13 x N C A c 17278
2534
70.6
1793
64.1
52.6
23.6
6.15
0.23
0.21
PBS 29036
Virginia
M 13 x Robut 33-1
2538
66.3
1683
53.9
47.3
20.7
9.74
0.37
0.27
PBS 20093
Virginia
M 13 x N C A c 17278
2595
64.5
1673
55.5
53.0
28.5
6.47
0.27
0.20
PBS 29027
Virginia
M 13 x N C A c 17278
2317
69.9
1620
60.7
50.7
15.5
4.40
0.22
1.09
PBS 29033
Virginia
M 13 x N C A c 17494
2383
67.1
1600
55.2
50.6
21.3
5.21
0.29
0.26
Virginia
M 13 x N C A c 17278
2162
1527
61.3
52.8
23.4
7.63
0.62
1.21
PBS 19003
Spanish
M 13 x PI 314817
2534
58.2
1474
55.0
52.7
28.1
7.97
0.33
0.22
PBS 29035
PBS 29026
Virginia
M 13 x Robut 33-1
2107
68.8
70.7
1446
62.1
51.4
18.0
7.09
0.25
0.33
Control
Somnath
Virginia
2206
70.4
1555
69.0
52.3
24.8
7.78
0.30
0.22
B 95
Virginia
1797
65.1
1170
63.2
53.8
29.6
7.46
0.30
0.24
1638
66.4
1088
76.7
52.5
25.2
8.82
0.28
0.24
Mean
2383
67.0
1615
61.9
52.0
24.3
7.26
0.31
0.37
C D (5%)
702.1
1.73
485.6
5.46
6.67
0.11
1.51
0.59
I C G V 89211 Virginia
1.
F A A = Free a m i n o a c i d ; R S = R e d u c i n g sugar.
A m o n g t h e test g e n o t y p e s , o i l c o n t e n t w a s h i g h e s t i n
References
P B S 11039 and lowest in P B S 29036. T h e protein content
ranged f r o m 1 5 . 5 % to 3 2 . 9 % and P B S 11039 had higher p r o t e i n
A s h w e l l , G . 1 9 5 7 . C o l o r i m e t r i c a n a l y s i s o f sugars. Pages
c o n t e n t t h a n t h e best c o n t r o l , B 9 5 . T h e f r e e a m i n o a c i d
7 3 - 1 0 5 i n M e t h o d s o f e n z y m o l o g y . V o l . 3 ( C o l o w i c k , S.P.,
c o n t e n t o f seeds r a n g e d f r o m 0 . 2 1 % ( P B S 2 9 0 1 7 ) t o 0.62 %
a n d K a p l a n , N . O . , eds.). N e w Y o r k , U S A : A c a d e m i c Press.
( P B S 2 9 0 2 6 ) . Seven genotypes had l o w e r free a m i n o acid
c o n t e n t t h a n t h e best c o n t r o l s ( B 9 5 a n d S o m n a t h ) .
T h e r e d u c i n g sugar content ranged f r o m 0 . 1 6 % ( P B S
Ballentine, R. 1957. D e t e r m i n a t i o n of total n i t r o g e n and
a m m o n i a . Pages 9 8 4 - 9 9 5 i n M e t h o d s o f e n z y m o l o g y . V o l .
11039) to 1 . 2 1 % (PBS 29026). Five genotypes had lower
3 ( C o l o w i c k , S.P., a n d K a p l a n , N . O . , eds.). N e w Y o r k ,
r e d u c i n g s u g a r c o n t e n t t h a n t h e best c o n t r o l s ( I C G V
U S A : A c a d e m i c Press.
8 9 2 1 1 a n d B 9 5 ) . H o w e v e r , the r e d u c i n g sugar content of
P B S 2 9 0 2 6 w a s f i v e t i m e s t h a t o f t h e best c o n t r o l s ( B 9 5
D w i v e d i , S . L . , J a m b u n a t h a n , R., and N i g a m , S . N . 1 9 9 0 .
a n d I C G V 8 9 2 1 1 ) . Sucrose c o n t e n t r a n g e d b e t w e e n 9 . 7 4 %
R e l a t i o n s h i p o f seed m a s s t o o i l a n d p r o t e i n i n p e a n u t
(PBS 29036) and 4 . 4 0 % (PBS 29027). PBS 29036 and PBS
(Arachis hypogaea L.). P e a n u t S c i e n c e
2 9 0 3 1 h a d h i g h e r sucrose content than the best c o n t r o l
ICGV89211.
A l l the genotypes, except P B S 2 9 0 3 6 , h a d > 5 0 % o i l
17:48-52.
F A O ( F o o d and A g r i c u l t u r e O r g a n i z a t i o n o f the U n i t e d
Nations).
1999.
FAO
Statistical
Database
(internet
website: www.fao.org).
content. A positive association between h i g h o i l content
a n d seed size has b e e n r e p o r t e d e a r l i e r ( K a l e e t a l . 1 9 8 8 ,
K a l e , D . M . , G a d g i l , J . D . , and M u r t h y , G . S . S . 1 9 8 8 . R e l a -
D w i v e d i e t a l . 1 9 9 0 ) . P B S 2 9 0 3 6 i s t h e best g e n o t y p e
t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n seed s i z e , o i l a n d p r o t e i n c o n t e n t s i n
based on comparable pod/seed y i e l d , l o w o i l content, and
groundnut. Journal o f Oilseeds Research 5 : 1 7 0 - 1 7 5 .
h i g h sucrose content m a n controls. P B S 11039 is another
p r o m i s i n g g e n o t y p e d u e t o its h i g h seed y i e l d , h i g h p r o t e i n
K u c k , J . A . , a n d St. A n g e l o , A . J . 1980. I m p r o v e d m e t h o d
content, a n d v e r y l o w r e d u c i n g sugar content. I t belongs
f o r quantitative determination of o i l content in peanuts
t o Spanish b u n c h g r o u p a n d m a t u r e s i n 110 d a y s w h i l e t h e
a n d peanut p r o d u c t s . Journal o f the A m e r i c a n O i l C h e m i s t s '
c o n t r o l s m a t u r e i n 125 d a y s .
Society 5 7 : 1 2 8 - 1 2 9 .
I A N 20, 2000
21
N i g a m , S . N . , D w i v e d i , S . L . , R e d d y , L . J . , and V a s u d e v a
R a o , M . J . 1989. A n update o n g r o u n d n u t b r e e d i n g a c t i v i ties a t I C R I S A T C e n t e r w i t h p a r t i c u l a r reference t o b r e e d i n g a n d s e l e c t i o n f o r i m p r o v e d q u a l i t y . Pages 1 1 5 - 1 2 5 i n
Proceedings o f the T h i r d Regional G r o u n d n u t W o r k s h o p
f o r S o u t h e r n A f r i c a , 1 3 - 1 8 M a r 1988, L i l o n g w e , M a l a w i .
P a t a n c h e r u 5 0 2 3 2 4 , A n d h r a Pradesh, I n d i a : I n t e r n a t i o n a l
C r o p s Research I n s t i t u t e f o r the S e m i - A r i d T r o p i c s .
Spies, J . R . 1957. C o l o r i m e t r i c procedures f o r a m i n o acids.
Pages 4 6 7 - 4 7 7 i n M e t h o d s o f e n z y m o l o g y . V o l . 3
( C o l o w i c k , S.P., a n d K a p l a n , N . O . , eds.). N e w Y o r k , U S A :
A c a d e m i c Press.
Screening Foliar Disease Resistant
G r o u n d n u t Genotypes for Tolerance to
Lime-induced I r o n Chlorosis
B N Motagi, M V C Gowda, and G K Naidu (Department
o f Genetics and Plant B r e e d i n g , U n i v e r s i t y o f
A g r i c u l t u r a l Sciences, D h a r w a d 580 005, Karnataka,
India)
C h l o r o s i s d u e t o i r o n d e f i c i e n c y i s one o f the m o s t i m p o r t a n t
factors l i m i t i n g g r o u n d n u t p r o d u c t i v i t y i n l a r g e stretches
o f calcareous soils i n India. A n economic and practically
feasible a p p r o a c h t o a l l e v i a t e t h i s p r o b l e m i s t o g r o w i r o n
a b s o r p t i o n e f f i c i e n t a n d p r o d u c t i v e c u l t i v a r s . V i s u a l scores
f o r i r o n c h l o r o s i s a n d c h l o r o p h y l l estimations o f 5 0 - t o 6 0 d a y - o l d p l a n t samples g r o w n i n p o t t e d calcareous soil were
considered as reliable criteria to classify c u l t i v a r s as i r o n e f f i c i e n t a n d i r o n - i n e f f i c i e n t ( K u l k a r n i e t a l . 1995, S a m d u r
etal.1999).
T h i r t e e n genotypes c o m p r i s i n g
f o l i a r disease resistant
m u t a n t s a n d cross d e r i v a t i v e s a n d t h e i r s u s c e p t i b l e sister
l i n e s a l o n g w i t h r u l i n g susceptible c u l t i v a r s a n d resistant
c u l t i v a r / g e r m p l a s m w e r e screened f o r i r o n - d e f i c i e n c y
c h l o r o s i s i n p o t e x p e r i m e n t s d u r i n g 1999 r a i n y season.
Pots o f u n i f o r m size w e r e f i l l e d w i t h n o r m a l s o i l ( p H 7 . 6 ;
4 . 8 % c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e ) a n d calcareous s o i l ( p H 8.9;
1 9 . 9 8 % c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e ) . I n each p o t t h r e e seeds w e r e
d i b b l e d in triangular fashion at equidistance. T h e pots
w e r e w a t e r e d r e g u l a r l y u p t o f i e l d c a p a c i t y a n d t h e plants
w e r e r e g u l a r l y p r o t e c t e d a g a i n s t pests a n d diseases.
I r o n deficiency was measured by visual chlorotic rating
on 1-5 scale ( 1 = d a r k g r e e n , 2 = g r e e n , 3 = l i g h t g r e e n ,
4 = l i g h t y e l l o w , a n d 5 = y e l l o w w i t h c h l o r o t i c spots) at 60
days after emergence ( D A E ) . T h e t h i r d l e a f o f m a i n a x i s o f
each p l a n t o f a l i n e w a s c o l l e c t e d , b u l k e d , a n d t h e n t o t a l
c h l o r o p h y l l content ( m g g - 1 o f f r e s h w e i g h t ) w a s e s t i m a t e d
a t 6 0 D A E b y f o l l o w i n g the procedure o f S h o a f and L i u m
(1976). Based on visual chlorotic rating the genotypes
w e r e g r o u p e d into three categories: ( 1 ) Efficient ( E ) : s h o w i n g
d a r k g r e e n t o g r e e n leaves w i t h v i s u a l c h l o r o t i c r a t i n g o f
< 2 . 5 ; ( 2 ) M o d e r a t e l y e f f i c i e n t ( M E ) : l i g h t green leaves
w i t h visual chlorotic rating of 2.5-3.5; and (3) Inefficient
( I E ) : g e n o t y p e s w i t h l i g h t y e l l o w t o y e l l o w leaves w i t h
visual chlorotic rating of >3.5 and plants s h o w i n g some
interveinal chlorosis (a typical s y m p t o m of i r o n defic i e n c y ) l e a d i n g t o c o m p l e t e c h l o r o s i s w i t h appearance o f
w h i t e p a p e r y leaves at later stages.
The iron-absorption efficient genotypes G B F D S 272
a n d D h 8 e x h i b i t e d least ( < 3 0 % ) r e d u c t i o n i n c h l o r o p h y l l
c o n t e n t ( T a b l e 1). T h e r e d u c t i o n r a n g e d f r o m 3 0 % t o 5 0 %
i n t h e m o d e r a t e l y - e f f i c i e n t g e n o t y p e s , D 3 9 d a n d its
s u s c e p t i b l e sister l i n e D 3 9 d s , s u s c e p t i b l e r u l i n g c u l t i v a r s
( J L 2 4 , T M V 2 , T A G 2 4 ) , a n d t h e resistant c u l t i v a r I C G V
86590. O n the contrary, mutants V L 1,28-2, and 28-2 (S),
M o s t o f t h e p r e s e n t - d a y v a r i e t i e s u n d e r c u l t i v a t i o n are
the cross d e r i v a t i v e B 37c, a n d the susceptible c u l t i v a r
i r o n - i n e f f i c i e n t a n d e x i s t i n g e f f i c i e n t l i n e s are n o t suitable
f o r c o m m e r c i a l c u l t i v a t i o n a s t h e y l a c k desirable a g r o n o m i c
features a n d p r o d u c t i v i t y . H e n c e , t h e r e is a s t r o n g n e e d
to identify iron-efficient/tolerant genotypes c o m b i n i n g
R 8808 were inefficient and recorded m o r e than 5 0 % reduction
in c h l o r o p h y l l content.
other desirable
attributes.
The
present
investigation
envisages to screen the f o l i a r disease resistant p r o d u c t i v e
genotypes for tolerance to iron-deficiency chlorosis.
22 I A N 20, 2000
F o l i a r disease resistant p r o d u c t i v e g e n o t y p e s , G B F D S
2 7 2 a n d D 3 9 d ( M o t a g i et al. 2 0 0 0 ) have efficient/moderately
e f f i c i e n t status a n d c a n b e g r o w n i n c a l c a r e o u s s o i l s .
These g e n o t y p e s c a n serve a s d o n o r s o f i r o n - a b s o r p t i o n
efficiency in hybridization programs.
T a b l e 1 . P e r f o r m a n c e o f f o l i a r disease resistant g r o u n d n u t g e n o t y p e s f o r i r o n - a b s o r p t i o n e f f i c i e n c y a t D h a r w a d ,
K a r n a t a k a , I n d i a , r a i n y season 1 9 9 9 .
Total c h l o r o p h y l l content 1
( m g g - 1 fresh weight)
Genotype
Normal
Calcareous
Reduction in
chlorophyll
Visual chlorotic rating
(%)
Iron-
( 1 - 5 scale)
content
Normal
efficiency
Calcareous
status 2
IE
Mutants
VL1
1.06fg
0.44g
58.19
1.5
4.0
28-2
1.11f
0.34h
69.40
2.5
4.5
IE
28-2(S)
1.15e
0.15i
86.91
1.5
5.0
IE
Cross derivatives
D 39d
1.18e
0.74d
37.42
1.5
3.0
ME
D 39d(S)
1.32c
0.74d
43.67
1.5
3.0
ME
B 37c
1.03g
0.45g
56.59
2.0
4.5
IE
E
Susceptible cultivars
Dh 8
1.25d
0.88b
29.92
1.0
2.0
R 8808
1.65a
0.56e
66.11
2.0
4.0
IE
JL 24
1.18e
0.79bc
33.30
1.5
3.0
ME
TMV 2
1.08fg
0.57e
47.60
1.5
3.5
ME
T A G 24
1.44b
0.81bc
43.77
1.5
3.5
ME
Resistant cultivar/germplasm
I C G V 86590
0.91h
0.58f
36.22
1.5
3.0
ME
G B F D S 272
1.16e
0.93a
19.62
1.0
2.0
E
Grand Mean
1.18
0.61
48.85
C D (5%)
0.03
0.02
C V (%)
1.28
1.65
1.
Figures w i t h same letters d o not d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y a t 5 % level o f p r o b a b i l i t y .
2.
E
=
Efficient; ME = Moderately efficient; and IE = Inefficient.
References
N e e d s i n the M i l l e n i u m , 2 - 4 February 2 0 0 0 , R a j e n d r a n a g a r ,
Hyderabad, India.
K u l k a r n i , V . N . , G o w d a , M . V . C . , N a d a f , H . L . , and
M a n j u n a t h a i a h , H . M . 1995. A n evaluation o f screening
method
(Arachis
for
iron-absorption
efficiency
in
groundnut
hypogaea L.). K a r n a t a k a J o u r n a l o f A g r i c u l t u r a l
Sciences 8 : 2 1 4 - 2 1 9 .
M o t a g i , B.N., Gowda, M . V . C . , a n d N a i d u , G . K . 2 0 0 0 . Resistant
S a m d u r , M . Y . , M a t h u r , R . K . , M a n i v e l , P., S i n g h , A . L . ,
B a n d y o p a d h y a y , A . , and C h i k a n i , E M . 1990. Screening o f
some advanced b r e e d i n g lines o f g r o u n d n u t (Arachis
hypogaea L.)
for tolerance of lime
induced
iron-defi-
ciency chlorosis. Indian Journal of A g r i c u l t u r a l Sciences
69:722-725.
genotypes t o stabilize p r o d u c t i v i t y i n f o l i a r disease e p i d e m i c s
S h o a f , T . W . , a n d L i u m , B . W . 1976. I m p r o v e d e x t r a c t i o n
i n Spanish t y p e g r o u n d n u t s . P r e s e n t e d a t t h e N a t i o n a l
o f c h l o r o p h y l l a a n d b f r o m algae u s i n g d i m e t h y l s u l f o x i d e .
S e m i n a r o n O i l s e e d s a n d O i l s - Research a n d D e v e l o p m e n t
L i m n o l o g y and Oceanography 21:926-928.
I A N 20, 2000
23
Performance of Virginia Groundnut
using appropriate statistical m e t h o d s ( p o o l e d analysis) to
Varieties i n the Northeastern D r y Z o n e
assess t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e d a t a ( T a b l e 1). I n c i d e n c e o f
rust and
of K a r n a t a k a , India
late
l e a f spot was
scored using
1-9
scale
(Subrahmanyam et al. 1995). L e a f m i n e r incidence was rec o r d e d u s i n g 1-9 scale, w h e r e 1 = no d a m a g e and 9 = 8 1 -
P Surendra 1 , D M M a h a l i n g a 2 , S D Yeishetty 2 , and
100% defoliation.
3
M S Patil ( 1 . College of A g r i c u l t u r e , B i j a p u r 586 1 0 1 ,
Karnataka,
India; 2.
A g r i c u l t u r a l Research Station,
Gulbarga 585 101, Karnataka, India; 3. Regional Research
References
Station, B i j a p u r 586 1 0 1 , Karnataka, India)
D i r e c t o r a t e of A g r i c u l t u r e . 1997. A g r i c u l t u r a l producG r o u n d n u t ( A r a c h i s hypogaea)
is an
important oilseed
c r o p i n K a r n a t a k a , I n d i a . I t i s c u l t i v a t e d i n a n area o f 1.3
tion 1995-96. Bangalore, Karnataka, India: Directorate of
Agriculture. 298 pp.
m i l l i o n h a , w i t h p r o d u c t i o n b e i n g 1.0 m i l l i o n t a n d p r o d u c t i v i t y 0.8 t h a - 1 ( D i r e c t o r a t e o f A g r i c u l t u r e 1997). I n a d -
S u b r a h m a n y a m , P., M c D o n a l d , D . , W a l i y a r , F., R e d d y ,
e q u a t e a n d u n p r e d i c t a b l e r a i n f a l l c o u p l e d w i t h disease
L.J., Nigam, S.N., Gibbons, R.W., Ramanatha Rao, V.,
a n d pest p r o b l e m s m a k e s r a i n f e d u p l a n d g r o u n d n u t c u l t i -
S i n g h , A . K . , P a n d e , S., R e d d y , P . M . , and S u b b a R a o , P . V .
vation
unprofitable.
Development
and
evaluation
of
1995. Screening m e t h o d s a n d sources o f resistance o f rust
d r o u g h t resistant/tolerant varieties is one of the important
a n d late l e a f spot o f g r o u n d n u t . I n f o r m a t i o n B u l l e t i n n o . 4 7 .
breeding objectives in this region. The experiment was
Patancheru 502 3 2 4 , A n d h r a Pradesh, India: International
c o n d u c t e d d u r i n g r a i n y season ( k h a r i f ) ( J u n e - O c t o b e r ) i n
Crops Research Institute f o r the S e m i - A r i d T r o p i c s . 24 p p .
T a b l e 1 . M e a n p e r f o r m a n c e o f Virginia genotypes o f g r o u n d n u t a t the A g r i c u l t u r a l Research S t a t i o n , G u l b a r g a ,
K a r n a t a k a , I n d i a , 1 9 9 5 a n d 1 9 9 6 r a i n y season 1 .
Pod y i e l d
Shelling
O i l content
Oil yield
(t ha -1 )
(t ha -1 )
Variety
Score
Rust 2
Late leaf spot 2
L e a f miner 3
(%)
(%)
I C G V 86699
1.97**
59.8
47.2*
0.55**
1.4**
1.7*
I C G V 87165
1.96**
60.4*
47.6**
0.56**
1.6*
1.4*
1.07
G B F D S 272
1.82*
57.5
47.0*
0.59*
1.7*
1.9*
1.30
1.03
I C G S 76
1.56
65.4**
44.0
0.45
5.7
6.3
1.33
C S M G 84-1
1.44
59.1
43.6
0.37
2.5
3.3
0.97
S 230
0.94
59.3
46.1
0.26
4.3
4.7
0.67
1.58
59.0
45.6
0.48
3.33
4.67
0.93
Mean
SEm
±0.19
±2.93
±0.86
±0.08
±0.16
±0.20
±0.08
C V (%)
24.00
9.97
3.55
11.50
20.25
20.77
7.11
1.
* Significant at 5 % ; **Significant at 1 % .
2.
Scored on a 1-9 scale, w h e r e 1 = no incidence, a n d 9 - > 8 0 % incidence.
3.
Scored on a 1-9 scale, where 1 = no damage, and 9 - 8 1 - 1 0 0 % d e f o l i a t i o n .
1995 a n d
1996 at the A g r i c u l t u r a l Research Station,
G u l b a r g a l o c a t e d i n the northeastern D r y Z o n e o f K a r n a t a k a .
Performance o f L o c a l Spreading T y p e
G r o u n d n u t Genotypes a t B i j a p u r i n
T h e average r a i n f a l l i s 7 2 0 m m o f w h i c h a n average o f 524
m m i s r e c e i v e d i n t h e r a i n y season. T h e s o i l i s m e d i u m
K a r n a t a k a , India
b l a c k w i t h p H o f 7 . 0 t o 7 . 5 . F i v e V i r g i n i a ( s u b s p hypogaea
v a r hypogaea) v a r i e t i e s a n d a l o c a l c u l t i v a r w e r e g r o w n i n
B G Prakash, N Y N a y k a r , and K M H a l a s w a m y
a r a n d o m i z e d b l o c k design w i t h three replications. The
(Regional Research Station, B i j a p u r 586 1 0 1 , Karnataka,
p l o t consisted o f f i v e r o w s o f 4.8 m each w i t h 4 5 c m i n t e r r o w
India)
and 15 cm intra-row spacing. Recommended agronomic
practices w e r e i m p l e m e n t e d a n d adequate p l a n t p o p u l a t i o n s
K a r n a t a k a state o f I n d i a g r o w s g r o u n d n u t o n 1.24 m i l l i o n
w e r e m a i n t a i n e d . D a t a p o o l e d o v e r t w o years w e r e a n a l y z e d
h a w i t h a p r o d u c t i o n o f 1.03 m i l l i o n t . I n B i j a p u r a n d
24
I A N 20, 2000
B a g a l k o t districts o f K a r n a t a k a , the c u l t i v a t i o n o f g r o u n d n u t
r e c o m m e n d e d varieties S 2 3 0 a n d P o n d i c h e r r y 8 , i n r a i n f e d
is restricted to 0.23 m i l l i o n ha w i t h a p r o d u c t i o n of 0.14
condition w i t h protective irrigation. Farmers find local
m i l l i o n t . A l m o s t 7 0 % o f the farmers i n Bagalkot district
varieties higher y i e l d i n g than r e c o m m e n d e d varieties. A n
(recently carved out of Bijapur district) continue to grow
extensive survey was made a r o u n d B a d a m i , Jamakhandi,
l o c a l s p r e a d i n g g r o u n d n u t v a r i e t i e s ( T a b l e 1), i n s p i t e o f
M u d h o l , B i l a g i , and H u n u g u n d taluks of Bijapur district
T a b l e 1 . P e r f o r m a n c e o f s p r e a d i n g g r o u n d n u t genotypes a t the R e g i o n a l Research S t a t i o n , B i j a p u r , I n d i a , 1996 a n d
1998 r a i n y season.
Disease rating 2 (1998)
N o . o f pods
Pod y i e l d
Shelling
plant - 1
( k g ha -1 )
(1998)
(1998)
(%)
(1998)
B u d necrosis 1 (%)
Late leaf
Genotype
(1996)
spot
Rust
I C G 1008
43.5
6.5
5.5
23
866
52.8
I C G 2773
48.2
8.0
9.0
25
755
62.3
(JH 60 x A - s e l ) x ( N R C G 2144)
52.4
5.5
4.5
10
978
67.0
Mamdapur Local 1
63.6
4.5
3.5
22
799
56.5
Mamdapur Local 2
65.5
6.0
4.5
24
770
70.5
K o l a r Local
55.0
5.5
4.0
13
1060
62.4
Chiknandi Local 1
52.0
4.5
5.0
14
1234
58.4
Mamdapur Local 3
42.5
4.0
5.5
19
1375
51.3
Shcttibhavi Local
45.8
6.5
6.5
31
997
63.9
Devoor Local
66.6
5.0
6.5
25
1060
65.5
Hanumnal Local
41.7
8.5
5.0
45
1268
72.9
Nilagol Local
47.0
5.0
7.0
16
1312
56.5
4.5
3.5
7.0
21
1481
50.6
Mustigere Local
56.2
5.0
5.5
29
1389
69.8
I C G 544
72.3
4.5
9.0
15
823
60.1
Horti Local 1
70.5
5.0
4.5
13
1007
62.3
Horti Local 2
64.8
6.0
3.5
31
1041
58.0
I C G 821
18.4
3.0
4.5
17
1344
65.5
I C G 9713
22.0
6.5
4.0
23
713
66.7
Khadak Local
55.4
7.0
4.5
22
1236
67.1
8.6
5.0
5.5
21
833
56.5
Anagal Local
74.4
6.5
5.0
53
988
65.1
Muttalgeri Local
64.0
5.5
4.5
17
707
55.9
Bevoor Local 1
77.0
5.0
5.5
15
693
60.5
67.3
Hanumasagar Local
Chiknandi Local 2
Bevoor Local 2
58.5
5.5
6.0
13
1036
Badami Local
65.0
6.5
9.0
18
815
56.5
Kushtageri Local 1
49.1
6.5
5.5
16
645
68.1
Kushtageri Local 2
70.3
5.0
5.5
14
869
66.9
Jalihal Local 1
65.4
7.5
6.0
10
820
66.4
Jalihal Local 2
55.0
4.5
6.5
28
1160
65.5
Ron L o c a l
43.6
7.0
7.5
21
925
66.5
Sankeshwar Local
58.1
6.5
9.0
19
902
58.0
Sirur Local
62.5
4.5
4.5
29
863
64.0
S 230
57.6
SEm
7.0
7.0
21
934
59.6
±1.86
±1.65
±9.20
±44.2
±7.24
24.38
115.1
19.54
4.78
22.8
9.15
C D (5%)
5.02
4.51
C V (%)
-
-
1 . O b s e r v a t i o n s w e r e r e c o r d e d i n t h e y e a r ( 1 9 9 6 ) w h e n disease i n c i d e n c e w a s h i g h . Y i e l d s w e r e v e r y l o w i n 1 9 9 6 r a i n y s e a s o n .
2.
O b s e r v a t i o n s w e r e r e c o r d e d i n t h e y e a r ( 1 9 9 8 ) w h e n disease i n c i d e n c e w a s h i g h .
I A N 20, 2000
25
d u r i n g 1 9 9 4 - 9 5 a n d 2 7 samples o f s p r e a d i n g t y p e g r o u n d n u t w e r e c o l l e c t e d f r o m f a r m e r s ' f i e l d s t o evaluate t h e m
w i t h other varieties i n c l u d i n g control.
Twenty-seven genotypes from farmers' fields, five
genotypes from I C R I S A T , Patancheru, India, one genot y p e [ ( J H - 6 0 x A - s e l ) x N R C G 2 1 4 4 ] from the N a t i o n a l
Research C e n t r e f o r G r o u n d n u t ( N R C G ) , Junagadh, I n d i a ,
a n d c o n t r o l S 2 3 0 w e r e e v a l u a t e d at the R e g i o n a l Research
S t a t i o n , B i j a p u r d u r i n g r a i n y season i n 1996 a n d 1998 i n a
randomized complete block design w i t h t w o replications.
T h e p l o t size w a s 5.00 m x 1.35 m w i t h 45 cm i n t e r r o w a n d
15 cm i n t r a - r o w spacing. R e c o m m e n d e d agronomic practices
were f o l l o w e d . The ancillary observations were recorded
on five plants and p o d y i e l d was recorded plot-wise in
each r e p l i c a t i o n . Disease i n c i d e n c e o f late l e a f s p o t a n d
rust w a s r e c o r d e d on a m o d i f i e d 1-9 scale ( S u b r a h m a n y a m
et a l . 1995). B u d necrosis incidence was categorized as
susceptible (S = 5 1 - 1 0 0 % ) , m o d e r a t e l y susceptible ( M S =
4 0 - 5 0 % ) , m o d e r a t e l y resistant ( M R = 1 1 - 3 9 % ) , a n d resist a n t ( R = 1 - 1 0 % ) , based o n t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f i n f e c t e d
plants.
T h e p o d y i e l d r a n g e d f r o m 6 4 5 k g ha -1 t o 1481 k g ha -1
w i t h H a n u m a s a g a r L o c a l p r o d u c i n g the h i g h e s t p o d y i e l d
( T a b l e 1). T h e n u m b e r o f p o d s p l a n t - 1 r a n g e d f r o m 1 0 t o 5 3
w i t h A n a g a l L o c a l h a v i n g m a x i m u m pods. T h e shelling
percentage r a n g e d f r o m 5 0 . 6 t o 7 2 . 9 w i t h h i g h e s t s h e l l i n g
recorded b y H a n u m n a l L o c a l . Hanumasagar L o c a l , the
g e n o t y p e w i t h h i g h e s t y i e l d w a s resistant t o b u d n e c r o s i s
( 4 . 5 % ) a n d late l e a f s p o t ( 3 . 5 score). S i m i l a r l y , I C G 8 2 1 ,
w h i c h w a s m o d e r a t e l y resistant t o b u d n e c r o s i s ( 1 8 . 4 % ) ,
resistant t o late l e a f spot ( 3 . 0 score), a n d m o d e r a t e l y resist a n t t o r u s t ( 4 . 5 score), also r e c o r d e d g o o d y i e l d ( 1 3 4 4 k g
ha - 1 ). B u d n e c r o s i s i s a serious p r o b l e m i n B i j a p u r ( D e s a i
1 9 9 8 ) a n d t h e r e is a n e e d to i n t r o d u c e s u c h resistant
g e n o t y p e s i n e n d e m i c areas a s t h e y n o t o n l y c h e c k t h e
spread o f the disease, b u t are also h i g h y i e l d i n g . M u s t i g e r e
L o c a l w a s a l s o h i g h y i e l d i n g ( 1 3 8 9 k g ha - 1 ) w i t h g o o d
s h e l l i n g p e r c e n t a g e ( 6 9 . 8 % ) . I t w a s m o d e r a t e l y resistant
t o b o t h late l e a f s p o t ( 5 . 0 s c o r e ) a n d r u s t (5.5 score) b u t
susceptible to b u d necrosis ( 5 6 . 2 % ) . On the other hand,
another h i g h - y i e l d i n g genotype M a m d a p u r L o c a l 3 (1375
k g h a 1 ) w a s m o d e r a t e l y resistant t o late l e a f spot ( 4 . 0
s c o r e ) a n d r u s t ( 5 . 5 score) a n d m o d e r a t e l y susceptible t o
b u d n e c r o s i s ( 4 2 . 5 % ) . F r o m these results, i t i s c l e a r t h a t
g e n o t y p e s f o r B a g a l k o t d i s t r i c t s h o u l d h a v e resistance/
t o l e r a n c e t o b u d necrosis, late l e a f spot, a n d rust. T h e
r e c o m m e n d e d v a r i e t y , S 2 3 0 , is susceptible to a l l the three
diseases. T h i s c o u l d b e o n e o f t h e reasons w h y f a r m e r s
do not grow it.
26 I A N 20, 2000
References
D e s a i , S . A . 1998. R e a c t i o n o f p e a n u t g e n o t y p e s t o b u d
necrosis tospo v i r u s i n Karnataka. Karnataka Journal o f
A g r i c u l t u r a l Sciences 1 1 : 8 3 1 - 8 3 3 .
S u b r a h m a n y a m , P., M c D o n a l d , D . , W a l i y a r , F . , R e d d y ,
L . J . , N i g a m , S.N., Gibbons, R . W . , R a m a n a t h a Rao, V . ,
Singh, A . K . , Pande, S., R e d d y , P . M . , and S u b b a R a o , P . V .
1995. S c r e e n i n g m e t h o d s a n d sources o f resistance t o
rust a n d late l e a f spot o f g r o u n d n u t . I n f o r m a t i o n B u l l e t i n
n o . 4 7 . P a t a n c h e r u 5 0 2 3 2 4 , A n d h r a Pradesh, I n d i a :
I n t e r n a t i o n a l C r o p s Research I n s t i t u t e f o r the S e m i - A r i d
Tropics. 24 pp.
N e w G r o u n d n u t Cultivars for G u j a r a t ,
India
P S B h a r o d i a ( G r o u n d n u t Research Station, Gujarat
Agricultural University, Junagadh 362 0 0 1 , Gujarat, India)
G u j a r a t state a c c o u n t s f o r 2 5 % o f the t o t a l area s o w n t o
groundnut i n India. G r o u n d n u t occupies 2 0 % o f the total
c u l t i v a t e d area i n t h e state. T h e G r o u n d n u t R e s e a r c h
Station, Gujarat A g r i c u l t u r a l U n i v e r s i t y at Junagadh, G u j a r a t
is a p i o n e e r i n g research s t a t i o n in the c o u n t r y a n d has
c o n t r i b u t e d several h i g h - y i e l d i n g g r o u n d n u t v a r i e t i e s o f
the state a n d the n a t i o n . H o w e v e r , the g r o u n d n u t research
a c t i v i t i e s at the s t a t i o n s u f f e r e d a m a j o r setback in 1987
w h e n peanut stripe v i r u s ( P S t V ) w a s detected i n g r o u n d n u t
material. T h e station was quarantined for groundnut crop.
A l l the b r e e d i n g a n d seed p r o d u c t i o n a c t i v i t i e s w e r e k e p t
o n h o l d . T h e v i r u s i s seedborne a n d i s t r a n s m i t t e d b y t h e
a p h i d Aphis craccivora. W i t h concerted, systematic efforts
based o n s c i e n t i f i c p r i n c i p l e s , w e w e r e able t o e l i m i n a t e
P S t V i n g r o u n d n u t materials a n d the quarantine o n g r o u n d n u t w a s l i f t e d i n 1 9 9 8 / 9 9 season. D u r i n g the p e r i o d o f
q u a r a n t i n e , disease-free seeds o f i m p o r t a n t b r e e d i n g
m a t e r i a l s tested b y e n z y m e - l i n k e d i m m u n o s o r b e n t assay
( E L I S A ) were generation advanced at other locations in
the state a n d s e l e c t i o n w a s c a r r i e d o u t . I n t h e last f i v e
years, t w o n e w p r o m i s i n g v a r i e t i e s — G u j a r a t G r o u n d n u t 5
( G G 5 ) a n d G u j a r a t G r o u n d n u t 6 ( G G 6 ) — w e r e released
a n d others are i n p i p e l i n e .
The variety GG 5 was bred and developed from the
cross 2 7 - 5 - 1 x JL 2 4 . It w a s released in 1996 f o r r a i n y season
( k h a r i f ) c u l t i v a t i o n i n t h e m a i n g r o u n d n u t - g r o w i n g areas
A N e w G r o u n d n u t V a r i e t y for V i d a r b h a
of Saurashtra, Gujarat. It is early in m a t u r i t y (101 days). It
Region of M a h a r a s h t r a State of I n d i a
has e r e c t g r o w t h h a b i t a n d s e q u e n t i a l - b r a n c h i n g p a t t e r n .
L e a v e s are o b o v a t e i n shape a n d l i g h t g r e e n i n c o l o r . Pods
S N Deshmukh, N S Shrikhandkar, G N Satpute,
are g e n e r a l l y t w o - s e e d e d , w i t h r e t i c u l a t i o n a n d w i t h o u t
c o n s t r i c t i o n . Seeds are m e d i u m in size ( 0 . 3 8 - 0 . 4 2 g seed -1 ).
H S Gahukar, A Y Thakre, R B Ulemale, and W M Dabre
T h e y are l i g h t r o s e i n c o l o r a n d c o n t a i n 4 8 . 7 % o i l . G G 5
(Oilseeds Research Unit, Dr Panjabrao Deshmukh K r i s h i
gives 3 3 . 5 % and 2 3 . 7 % higher y i e l d than check varieties
Vidyapeeth, A k o l a 444 104, Maharashtra, India)
J 11 a n d GG 2 r e s p e c t i v e l y . It has a s h e l l i n g o u t - t u r n of
7 3 . 7 % . Its r e a c t i o n t o diseases a n d pests i s s i m i l a r t o
G r o u n d n u t area i n r a i n y season ( k h a r i f ) ( J u n e - O c t o b e r ) i s
check varieties.
d e c l i n i n g i n t h e V i d a r b h a r e g i o n o f M a h a r a s h t r a state o f
T h e variety GG 6 was b r e d and developed from the
I n d i a . T h e a v e r a g e area i n the 1990s ( a v e r a g e o f 1 9 9 0 - 9 8 )
cross C G C 3 x F E S R 5 - P 6 B 1 - B 1 . It w a s released in 1999 f o r
was 71,029 ha c o m p a r e d to 111,600 ha in the 1980s (average
summer cultivation in Gujarat. It is early in maturity (109
o f 1 9 8 0 - 8 9 ) . T h e m a i n reasons f o r the r e d u c t i o n i n area are
d a y s ) . I t has e r e c t g r o w t h h a b i t a n d s e q u e n t i a l b r a n c h i n g
non-availability
p a t t e r n . L e a v e s are o b l o n g e l l i p t i c i n shape a n d l i g h t
h a v i n g desirable traits and lack o f transfer o f i m p r o v e d
of high-yielding
groundnut
varieties
green i n c o l o r . Pods are g e n e r a l l y t w o - s e e d e d , w i t h r e t i c u l a -
t e c h n o l o g y o f g r o u n d n u t p r o d u c t i o n t o farmers. I n response
t i o n a n d s l i g h t c o n s t r i c t i o n . Seeds are o b l o n g a n d m e d i u m
to this situation, varietal development of groundnut was
in size ( 0 . 3 2 - 0 . 3 8 g seed - 1 ). T h e y are l i g h t rose in c o l o r a n d
g i v e n t o p p r i o r i t y i n the U n i v e r s i t y ( D r Panjabrao D e s h m u k h
contain 5 0 . 3 % o i l . GG 6 gives 2 2 . 9 % , 17.5%, and 14.3%
K r i s h i Vidyapeeth) at A k o l a in Maharashtra. As a result,
higher y i e l d than check varieties J 1 1 , GG 4, and GG 2
A K 159 w a s d e v e l o p e d , tested ( T a b l e 1), a n d r e l e a s e d i n
r e s p e c t i v e l y . I t has a s h e l l i n g o u t - t u r n o f 7 3 % . Its r e a c t i o n
2 0 0 0 f o r r a i n y season ( k h a r i f ) as a h i g h - y i e l d i n g , m e d i u m -
t o diseases a n d pests i s s i m i l a r t o c h e c k v a r i e t i e s .
duration v a r i e t y ( P K V 2 0 0 0 ) .
T a b l e 1 . P o d yield o f g r o u n d n u t v a r i e t y A K 159 a n d check cultivars i n different trials i n the V i d a r b h a region o f
Maharashtra, India.
Average pod y i e l d (t ha-1)
No. o f
Year
Trial1
1994
PYT
1
1.13
0.88
(27.7)
1.06
(6.6)
0.53
(112.5)
1995
IET
2
2.64
2.26
(16.8)
2.44
(8.4)
2.13
(24.2)
1996
MVT
4
2.07
1.66
(24.8)
1.90
(9.2)
2.09
(-0.4)
1997
MVT
5
2.54
1.86
(36.5)
1.94
(31.0)
1.87
(36.0)
1998
MVT
5
2.51
1.73
(45.0)
1.79
(40.4)
1.85
(35.7)
locations
T A G 24 2
A K 159
T G 26 2
JL 24 2
1999
MVT
4
2.36
1.61
(46.8)
1.52
(55.4)
2.08
(13.3)
1996-99
MVT
18 3
2.39
1.72
(38.5)
1.79
(33.1)
1.96
(22.0)
1998
Adaptive trial
2
2.36
-
2.00
(17.8)
1999
Adaptive trial
9
1.63
1.06
(54.4)
1 . P Y T = Preliminary Y i e l d T r i a l ; I E T = Initial Evaluation Trial; M V T = Multiplication Varietal Trial.
2 . C o n t r o l ; f i g u r e s i n parentheses i n d i c a t e percentage increase i n y i e l d o f A K 159 o v e r c o n t r o l .
3 . P o o l e d average o f 1 8 e n v i r o n m e n t s . F o r p o o l e d analysis, S E m = ± 0 . 0 6 2 , C D a t 5 % l e v e l = 0 . 1 7 2 , a n d C V ( % ) = 14.0.
I A N 20, 2000
27
T i r u p a t i 4: A High-yielding G r o u n d n u t
A K 1 5 9 , a Spanish b u n c h g e n o t y p e , w a s d e r i v e d f r o m a
c r o s s b e t w e e n J L 2 4 ( a l o c a l l y a d o p t e d Spanish b u n c h
V a r i e t y for A n d h r a Pradesh, I n d i a
v a r i e t y ) a n d a Spanish b r e e d i n g l i n e resistant to f o l i a r
diseases, C G C 4 0 1 8 a t A k o l a . J L 2 4 i s a s e l e c t i o n f r o m E C
J R a m a c h a n d r a Reddy, N Rajagopal, R P V a s a n t h i ,
9 4 9 4 3 . C G C 4 0 1 8 was derived b y pedigree selection f r o m
L Prasanthi, and C R a m a n a Reddy (Regional A g r i c u l -
1 4 - 4 - B - 1 9 - B x N c A c 1 7 0 9 0 . A K 159 w a s d e v e l o p e d
tural Research Station, Acharya N G Ranga A g r i c u l t u r a l
f o l l o w i n g pedigree m e t h o d o f selection.
D i s t i n g u i s h i n g m o r p h o l o g i c a l characters o f A K
University, Tirupati 517 502, A n d h r a Pradesh, India)
159
are n o r m a l p l a n t t y p e ( 3 0 - 4 0 c m h e i g h t ) ; d a r k g r e e n a n d
Groundnut is an important edible oilseed crop in A n d h r a
broad leaflet; and m e d i u m to small pods w i t h slight beak,
Pradesh, I n d i a . I t i s c u l t i v a t e d o n about 2.2 m i l l i o n h a o f
s l i g h t c o n s t r i c t i o n , a n d less r e t i c u l a t i o n . T h e seeds are
w h i c h 7 0 % i s i n t h e r a i n y season. T C G S 3 0 , a d e r i v a t i v e o f
w h i t i s h rose in color.
J L 2 4 x A h 3 1 6 / s w a s d e v e l o p e d b y mass p e d i g r e e m e t h o d
A K 1 5 9 m a t u r e s i n 1 0 0 - 1 0 5 d a y s a n d has m o d e r a t e
at the G r o u n d n u t Breeding U n i t , Regional A g r i c u l t u r a l
s h e l l i n g ( 6 8 . 3 % ) , m o d e r a t e seed size (100-seed mass 32.5 g ) ,
Research S t a t i o n , T i r u p a t i , A n d h r a Pradesh. I t w a s r e l e a s e d
h i g h s o u n d m a t u r e seeds ( 9 2 . 8 % ) , a n d a v e r a g e o i l c o n t e n t
a s T i r u p a t i 4 b y the A n d h r a Pradesh A g r i c u l t u r a l U n i v e r s i t y
(47.9%).
( n o w A c h a r y a N G R a n g a A g r i c u l t u r a l U n i v e r s i t y ) i n 1995
A K 159 was i n c l u d e d i n replicated y i e l d trials i n the
f o r cultivation in A n d h r a Pradesh.
areas u n d e r t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n o f D r P a n j a b r a o D e s h m u k h
T i r u p a t i 4 is a Spanish b u n c h v a r i e t y . It m a t u r e s in 105
K r i s h i V i d y a p e e t h f r o m 1 9 9 4 t o 1 9 9 9 . O n average o v e r 1 8
d a y s a f t e r s o w i n g ( D A S ) i n r a i n y season a n d i n 1 0 5 - 1 1 0
environments, it yielded 2.39 tha-1 w h i c h was 3 8 . 5 % more
D A S i n p o s t r a i n y season o n p a r w i t h J L 2 4 . I t s leaves are
than that o f T A G 2 4 , 3 3 . 1 % m o r e than that o f T G 2 6 , and
g r e e n a n d p o d s are m e d i u m b o l d w i t h p r o m i n e n t r e t i c u l a -
2 2 . 0 % m o r e than that o f J L 2 4 . I n adaptive trials also, A K
t i o n , s l i g h t b e a k , a n d m o d e r a t e c o n s t r i c t i o n . T h e seed i s
1 5 9 m a i n t a i n e d its p o d y i e l d s u p e r i o r i t y ( T a b l e 1).
rose i n c o l o r .
T i r u p a t i 4 w a s e v a l u a t e d i n t h r e e r a i n y seasons ( 1 9 9 0 ,
Reference
1 9 9 1 , a n d 1 9 9 2 ) a n d t h r e e p o s t r a i n y seasons ( 1 9 9 1 / 9 2 ,
P K V ( D r Panjabrao D e s h m u k h K r i s h i V i d y a p e e t h ) . 2 0 0 0 .
w a s 1 9 % m o r e i n t h e r a i n y season a n d 1 6 % m o r e i n t h e
1992/93, and 1993/94) at Tirupati. Pod y i e l d of Tirupati 4
Release p r o p o s a l o f g r o u n d n u t v a r i e t y A K 159. A c c e p t e d
p o s t r a i n y season t h a n J L 2 4 ( T a b l e 1). Seed y i e l d w a s 2 0 %
in Joint-AGRESCO meeting, 2 5 - 2 7 M a y 2000. Akola,
m o r e i n t h e r a i n y season a n d 2 4 % m o r e i n t h e p o s t r a i n y
Maharashtra, India: P K V . 18 pp.
season than JL 2 4 . T i r u p a t i 4 was earlier tested at 10 locations
T a b l e 1 . P e r f o r m a n c e o f T i r u p a t i 4 i n r a i n y a n d p o s t r a i n y seasons a t T i r u p a t i , A n d h r a P r a d e s h , I n d i a .
Rainy season ( k h a r i f )
Postrainy season (rabi)
Character
Variety
1990
1991
1992
Average
1991/92
Pod y i e l d ( k g ha -1 )
Tirupati 4
1786
1595
1628
1670
3326
1782
5505
3538
J L 24
1425
1305
1472
1401
2489
1260
5381
3043
±82
±117
±94
±272
±424
±212
18
SE
C V (%)
100-seed mass (g)
28
I A N 20, 2000
Average
9
13
15
15
239
195
563
-
428
1138
1212
1164
1171
1516
1158
4301
2325
948
953
1023
975
1062
756
3777
1865
Tirupati 4
84
106
95
95
90
70
108
89
JL 24
81
94
95
90
91
70
93
85
Tirupati 4
37
48
43
43
39
37
56
44
JL 24
34
47
44
42
39
40
56
45
Tirupati 4
JL 24
100-podmass(g)
1993/94
168
C D (0.05)
Seed y i e l d ( k g ha-')
1992/93
18
under the A l l India C o o r d i n a t e d Research Project on
K a d i r i 3 is a released V i r g i n i a c u l t i v a r g r o w n in I n d i a . C S - 9
Oilseeds ( A I C O R P O ) in 1988/89 postrainy season; it
is a d e r i v a t i v e of a cross b e t w e e n PI 2 6 1 9 4 2 a n d Arachis
1
produced 1 6 % more pod yield (2490 kg ha ) than JL 24
-1
cardenasii w i t h
-1
( 2 1 4 8 k g ha ) a n d 1 9 % m o r e seed y i e l d ( 1 7 0 9 k g ha ) t h a n
multiple
disease
and
insect resistance
and is registered as I C G V 87165 ( M o s s et al. 1997). I C G V
-1
J L 2 4 ( 1 4 3 4 k g ha ).
87853 was developed by bulk method of selection.
Performance
I n t h e f o u r f o l i a r diseases resistance t r i a l s c o n d u c t e d a t
Registration o f G r o u n d n u t C u l t i v a r
I C R I S A T , P a t a n c h e r u , I n d i a d u r i n g r a i n y season i n 1 9 9 0
V e n u s ( I C G V 87853)
a n d 1 9 9 1 , I C G V 8 7 8 5 3 w i t h a m e a n p o d y i e l d o f 1.58 t h a - 1
o u t y i e l d e d the i m p r o v e d Virginia cultivar I C G S 7 6 b y
Subrahmanyam 2 ,
4 3 . 7 % a n d K a d i r i 3 b y 6 4 . 6 % ( T a b l e 1). I n a n o t h e r set o f
F M Ismael 3 , N Govinden 3 , and P J A van der M e r w e 2
four drought tolerance trials conducted at I C R I S A T d u r i n g
L
J
Reddy 1 ,
S
N
Nigam 1 ,
P
( 1 . International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-
1 9 9 0 - 9 2 r a i n y a n d p o s t r a i n y seasons, I C G V 8 7 8 5 3 w i t h a
A r i d Tropics ( I C R I S A T ) , Patancheru 502 324, A n d h r a
m e a n p o d y i e l d o f 1.83 t h a - 1 o u t y i e l d e d t h e p o p u l a r
Pradesh, India; 2. I C R I S A T , PO B o x 1096, L i l o n g w e ,
Spanish c u l t i v a r s , T M V 2 b y 2 2 . 8 % a n d I C G S 1 1 b y 6 . 4 % .
M a l a w i ; 3. Mauritius Sugar Industry Research Institute,
I n M a u r i t i u s , i t has s h o w n a m e a n p o d y i e l d s u p e r i o r i t y o f
Reduit, Mauritius)
4 7 % across 2 6 trials c o n d u c t e d a t d i f f e r e n t l o c a t i o n s d u r i n g
1 9 9 4 - 9 7 ( G o v i n d e n a n d Ismael 1997) ( T a b l e 2 ) . V e n u s w i t h
Purpose of description
Y = 1 . 0 8 x +0.16 (r 2 = - 0 . 9 0 ) c o m p a r e d t o Y = 0.87 x - 0 . 3 8 (r 2
= 0 . 8 6 ) o f C a b r i w a s m o r e stable a n d p r e d i c t a b l e i n its p o d
T h e M a u r i t i u s Sugar Industry Research Institute r e c o m m e n d e d and released the
yield performance in Mauritius (Ismael and G o v i n d e n
g r o u n d n u t (Arachis hypogaea)
1998).
c u l t i v a r I C G V 8 7 8 5 3 a s ' V e n u s ' f o r c u l t i v a t i o n i n 1998
( M S 1 R I 1 9 9 8 ) . V e n u s has s i g n i f i c a n t l y o u t y i e l d e d t h e
Plant characters
p o p u l a r c u l t i v a r C a b r i b y 4 8 % a n d w a s m o r e stable i n
y i e l d t h a n C a b r i . T h e seeds o f V e n u s are l a r g e r t h a n t h o s e
I C G V 8 7 8 5 3 b e l o n g s t o the V i r g i n i a b u n c h b o t a n i c a l g r o u p
o f C a b r i a n d are accepted f o r b o i l e d n u t s . V e n u s i s resistant
to
rust
(Puccinia
arachidis)
and
is
recommended
{Arachis
for
hypogaea
subsp
hypogaea
var
hypogaea).
It
has d e c u m b e n t - 3 g r o w t h h a b i t ; a l t e r n a t e f l o w e r i n g ; a n d
c u l t i v a t i o n both as a pure c r o p and as intercrop w i t h
m e d i u m - s i z e d , o v a l , d a r k g r e e n leaves. I t has a n a v e r a g e
sugarcane in M a u r i t i u s .
o f s i x p r i m a r y a n d f o u r s e c o n d a r y b r a n c h e s . Its p l a n t
height is about 32 c m . The f l o w e r is y e l l o w w i t h orange
O r i g i n and development
crescent a n d r e d m a r k i n g s o n t h e s t a n d a r d p e t a l . I C G V
I C G V 8 7 8 5 3 w a s d e v e l o p e d f r o m a cross b e t w e e n K a d i r i 3
8 7 8 5 3 m a t u r e s i n a b o u t 120 t o 125 d a y s d u r i n g t h e r a i n y
( I C G 7 9 9 ) a n d a stable i n t e r s p e c i f i c d e r i v a t i v e , C S - 9 .
season a n d 1 3 5 - 1 4 0 d a y s d u r i n g t h e p o s t r a i n y season a t
T a b l e 1 . Pod yield o f groundnut cultivar I C G V 87853 (Venus) and control cultivars a t I C R I S A T , Patancheru, I n d i a
d u r i n g r a i n y seaon i n 1 9 9 0 a n d 1 9 9 1 .
Pod y i e l d (t ha -1 )
Cultivar
1990 ( H I )
1
1990 ( L I )
2
1991 ( H I )
1991 ( L I )
Mean
1.55
1.02
2.11
I C G S 76 (control)
1.11
0.65
1.60
1.05
1.10
K a d i r i 3 (control)
0.81
0.56
1.48
0.98
0.%
±0.100
±0.174
±0.068
±0.162
23
15
17
I C G V 87853
SE
C V (%)
1.65
1.58
1.
H I = H i g h i n p u t ( 6 0 k g P 2 O 5 ha-1; 4 0 0 k g g y p s u m ha-1), supplemental i r r i g a t i o n , f u l l p r o t e c t i o n f r o m insects, and n o p r o t e c t i o n f r o m
2.
L I - L o w i n p u t ( 2 0 k g P 2 O 5 h a - 1 ) . r a i n f e d , a n d n o p r o t e c t i o n f r o m i n s e c t s a n d diseases.
diseases.
I A N 20, 2000
29
T a b l e 2 . Pod yield a t 8 % moisture content o f groundnut cultivar I C G V 87853 (Venus) and C a b r i i n various trials
conducted in M a u r i t i u s f r o m 1994 to 1997.
M e a n pod y i e l d (t ha -1 )
I C G V 87853 1
Cabri
Year
Season
N o . o f trials
1994
Second season
1
3.16
1.16
1995
First season
2
1.30
0.89
1995
Second season
5
4.16
2.19
1996
First season
4
2.08
1.87
1996
Second season
6
4.96
3.12
1997
First season
8
4.81
4.29
O v e r a l l mean ( 2 6 trials)
3.97
2.70
First season mean (14 trials)
3.53
2.81
Second season mean (12 trials)
4.48
2.57
L S D (0.05) First season
0.52
L S D (0.05) Second season
0.66
1.
M e a n p o d y i e l d superiority o f I C G V 878S3 over C a b r i i n 2 6 trials i s 4 7 % .
T a b l e 3 . R e a c t i o n o f I C G V 8 7 8 5 3 a n d c o n t r o l g r o u n d n u t c u l t i v a r s t o f o l i a r diseases a t I C R I S A T , P a t a n c h e r u , I n d i a
d u r i n g r a i n y season i n 1 9 9 0 a n d 1 9 9 1 .
Late leaf spot 1
Rust 1
1990
1990
1991
1991
1990
1990
1991
1991
(HI)2
(LI)3
(HI)
(LI)
(HI)
(LI)
(HI)
(LI)
I C G V 87853
7
6
6
7
3
3
4
3
I C G S 76 (control)
8
9
7
8
8
7
8
8
Kadiri 3 (control)
9
9
9
9
9
8
8
9
±0.3
±0.4
±0.6
±0.5
±0.2
±0.3
±0.4
±0.3
7
8
11
10
6
9
5
11
Cultivar
SE
C V (%)
1.
Scored on a 1-9 scale, w h e r e 1 = no disease, and 9 = 8 1 - 1 0 0 % f o l i a g e d a m a g e d .
2.
H I = H i g h i n p u t ( 6 0 k g P 2 O 5 h a - 1 ; 4 0 0 k g g y p s u m ha - 1 ), s u p p l e m e n t a l i r r i g a t i o n , f u l l p r o t e c t i o n f r o m insects, a n d n o p r o t e c t i o n f r o m d i s e a s e s .
3.
L I = L o w i n p u t ( 2 0 k g P 2 O 5 ha-1), r a i n f e d , a n d n o p r o t e c t i o n f r o m insects a n d diseases.
I C R I S A T , Patancheru. In Mauritius it took about 1 4 0 - 1 5 0
days to mature.
Reaction
to
diseases
and
pests
In four trials conducted at I C R I S A T , Patancheru, I C G V
87853 w a s resistant to rust ( T a b l e 3) w i t h a m e a n score of
Pod a n d seed characters
I C G V 8 7 8 5 3 u s u a l l y has 2-seeded p o d s , w h i c h are c h a r a c terized by a small beak, slight constriction, and moderate
reticulation. T h e average p o d length is 34 m m , and p o d
w i d t h is 10 m m . Its shelling turnover on average is 6 8 % .
3.2 c o m p a r e d t o a m e a n s c o r e o f 7.8 f o r I C G S 7 6 a n d
8.5 s c o r e f o r K a d i r i 3 o n a 1 - 9 disease r a t i n g s c a l e
(Subrahmanyam et al. 1995). I C G V 87853 was moderately
tolerant t o late l e a f spot c o m p a r e d t o t h e susceptible c u l t i v a r
K a d i r i 3 (Table 3).
Its 100-seed mass ranges f r o m 32 g to 52 g d e p e n d i n g on
t h e season a n d l o c a t i o n . T h e seeds o f I C G V 8 7 8 5 3 arc t a n
References
and a higher proportion of them (57.5%) fall under the
Virginia m e d i u m grade and a smaller proportion under
G o v i n d e n , N . , and I s m a e l , F . M . 1997. P e r f o r m a n c e e t
Spanish n o . 1 a n d s p l i t g r a d e s .
caracteristiques de deux nouvelles varieties d' A r a c h i d e .
30
I A N 20, 2000
Conference
der
23
September
1997
Salle
Boname,
M a u r i t i u s Sugar Industry Research Institute ( M S I R I ) ,
Reduit, Mauritius.
H u a y u 16: A N e w High-yielding,
Improved Quality Groundnut Cultivar
w i t h W i d e A d a p t a b i l i t y for N o r t h e r n
I s m a e l , F . M . , and G o v i n d e n , N . 1 9 9 8 . P e r f o r m a n c e o f
newly-released groundnut varieties Venus and Sylvia.
China
R e v e r e A g r i c o l e e t Sucriere d e l ' l l e M a u r i c e 7 7 ( 2 & 3 ) : 1-7.
Li Zhengchao and Q i u Qingshu ( S h a n d o n g Peanut
Moss, J.P., Singh, A . K . , Reddy, L.J., N i g a m , S.N.,
Research Institute, L a i x i 2 6 6 6 0 1 , Shandong, China)
S u b r a h m a n y a m , P., M c D o n a l d , D . , a n d R e d d y , A . G . S .
1997. Registration o f I C G V 87165 peanut g e r m p l a s m line
C h i n a i s o n e o f t h e m a j o r g r o u n d n u t ( A r a c h i s hypogaedy
w i t h m u l t i p l e resistance. C r o p Science 3 7 : 1 0 2 8 .
M S I R I ( M a u r i t i u s Sugar Industry Research Institute).
1998. N e w g r o u n d n u t varieties f o r c o m m e r c i a l plantation.
Recommendation
Sheet N o .
108.
Reduit,
Mauritius:
MSIRI.
p r o d u c i n g c o u n t r i e s i n t h e w o r l d . I t r a n k s s e c o n d i n area
and first i n p r o d u c t i o n o f g r o u n d n u t i n the w o r l d . T h e
average y i e l d o f g r o u n d n u t i n C h i n a increased b y 1 8 8 . 5 %
i n 1998 c o m p a r e d w i t h 1949. Selection and extension o f
n e w g r o u n d n u t c u l t i v a r s has p l a y e d a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n
S u b r a h m a n y a m , P., M c D o n a l d , D . , W a l i y a r , F., R e d d y ,
increasing the p r o d u c t i v i t y o f g r o u n d n u t i n the c o u n t r y
L.J., N i g a m , S.N., Gibbons, R.W., Ramanatha Rao, V.,
( Q i u Q i n g s h u et al. 1996). B u t most of the current h i g h -
S i n g h , A . K . , P a n d e , S., R e d d y , P . M . , and S u b b a R a o , P.V.
y i e l d i n g cultivars in n o r t h e r n C h i n a , such as L u h u a 14,
1 9 9 5 . S c r e e n i n g m e t h o d s a n d sources o f resistance t o
L u h u a 1 1 , a n d J i y o u 4 , h a v e resistance o n l y t o t h e a b n o r m a l
r u s t a n d late l e a f s p o t o f g r o u n d n u t . I n f o r m a t i o n B u l l e t i n
climatic conditions (drought or waterlogging), and their
no. 47. Patancheru 502 324, A n d h r a Pradesh, India:
q u a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are n o t s a t i s f a c t o r y . I t i s e s s e n t i a l
I n t e r n a t i o n a l C r o p s Research I n s t i t u t e f o r t h e S e m i - A r i d
to develop new high-yielding cultivars w i t h improved
Tropics. 24 pp.
comprehensive characteristics.
T a b l e 1 . A v e r a g e pod yield a n d seed yield o f g r o u n d n u t c u l t i v a r H u a y u 1 6 i n p r o v i n c i a l trials a n d d e m o n s t r a t i o n tests i n
S h a n d o n g a n d H e b e i provinces, C h i n a .
Pod y i e l d
Seed y i e l d
increase
Pod y i e l d
(t ha -1 )
Cultivar
A.
over control
(%)
increase
Seed y i e l d
-1
(t ha )
over c o n t r o l
(%)
Provincial trials 1
Shandong
H u a y u 16
3.97
L u h u a 11 (control)
3.56
11.36 2
2.92
14.15 3
2.56
Hebei
H u a y u 16
4.13
Jiyou 8 (control)
3.71
B.
11.38 2
3.12
16.5P
2.68
Demonstration plots 4
Shandong
H u a y u 16
4.83
L u h u a 11 (control)
4.37
10.74 2
3.54
13.21 3
3.13
Hebei
H u a y u 16
3.77
J i y o u 8 (control)
3.60
1.
7.48
2.88
12.09 2
2.57
M e a n o f 1 9 s i t e s i n S h a n d o n g i n 1 9 9 6 / 9 7 a n d 6 sites i n H e b e i i n 1 9 9 7 / 9 8 .
2.
Significant.
3.
Highly
4.
M e a n o f 6 sites i n S h a n d o n g a n d 3 sites i n H e b e i i n 1 9 9 8 .
significant.
I A N 20, 2000
31
H u a y u 16, a large-seeded g r o u n d n u t c u l t i v a r , w a s
d e v e l o p e d i n 1998 b y the S h a n d o n g Peanut Research
Institute i n C h i n a , a n d released i n 1999 b y the C r o p C u l t i v a r
A p p r o v a l Committees of Shandong and Hebei provinces.
I t w a s d e r i v e d f r o m t h e cross o f 8 2 2 3 w i t h L u h u a 1 0 u s i n g
the m o d i f i e d p e d i g r e e m e t h o d . I t b e l o n g s t o Spanish g r o u p
(A.hypogaeasubsp
fastigiata v a r vulgaris).
A v e r a g e p o d y i e l d a n d seed y i e l d o f H u a y u 1 6 a n d the
control cultivars in p r o v i n c i a l trials and demonstration
tests i n S h a n d o n g a n d H e b e i p r o v i n c e s are presented i n
T a b l e 1 . I n a l l t r i a l s a n d tests i n the t w o p r o v i n c e s w i t h 1 5
n e w g r o u n d n u t c u l t i v a r s , H u a y u 1 6 a l w a y s r a n k e d first. I n
A n h u i p r o v i n c i a l d e m o n s t r a t i o n tests i n 1 9 9 8 , its average
p o d y i e l d w a s 4 . 6 9 t ha - 1 , 1 4 . 3 % m o r e t h a n the c o n t r o l
L u h u a 9. In L a i x i , Shandong province, in a y i e l d maximizat i o n t r i a l o n 0.4 h a i n 1999, i t p r o d u c e d 9.54 tha -1 p o d y i e l d .
H u a y u 1 6 m a t u r e s i n 130 days i n s p r i n g c r o p season. I t
has a n erect g r o w t h h a b i t , s e q u e n t i a l f l o w e r i n g , a n d d a r k
g r e e n leaves. T h e h e i g h t o f t h e m a i n s t e m i s 4 0 c m . T h e
p l a n t has 5 - 6 p r i m a r y a n d 2 - 3 s e c o n d a r y branches. Pods
are m o s t l y t w o - s e e d e d a n d c l u s t e r e d a r o u n d the m a i n t a p root in the s o i l . T h e p o d beak is short and the p o d reticul a t i o n i s t h i c k a n d s h a l l o w . T h e 1 0 0 - p o d mass i s 2 1 0 g a n d
t h e 100-seed mass i s 100 g w i t h a s h e l l i n g percentage o f
7 5 . Seed o f H u a y u 1 6 i s rose i n c o l o r a n d c o n t a i n s 5 2 . 8 9 %
o i l a n d 2 9 . 6 6 % p r o t e i n , 1.80% a n d 3 . 8 1 % m o r e t h a n that o f
L u h u a 1 1 , respectively. The oleic acid/linoleic acid ( O / L )
r a t i o is 1.7. In s e l e n i u m , v i t a m i n C, a n d v i t a m i n B 1 contents,
H u a y u 1 6 r a n k e d f i r s t a m o n g 1 0 a d v a n c e d l i n e s tested i n
1 9 9 9 . T h e seed c o n t a i n s 0 . 0 8 6 m g k g - 1 s e l e n i u m , 7.38 m g
100g - 1 v i t a m i n C, a n d 14.84 mg kg - 1 v i t a m i n B 1 , the contents
b e i n g 0 . 0 0 4 - 0 . 0 1 4 m g k g - 1 , 0 . 0 2 - 4 . 9 6 m g 1 0 0 g - 1 , a n d 1.946.88 m g k g - 1 m o r e t h a n o t h e r lines, r e s p e c t i v e l y .
H u a y u 16 is resistant to r o o t rot (caused by
Macrophomina phaseolina) a n d t o l e r a n t to p e a n u t stripe
v i r u s ( T a b l e 2 ) . T h e c u l t i v a r i s resistant t o d r o u g h t a n d
Table 2. Reaction of groundnut cultivar H u a y u 16 to
p r o d u c t i o n constraints i n C h i n a , 1 9 9 9 .
Score 1
Cultivar
Huayu 16
Luhua 11 (control)
Luhua 14 (control)
Jiyou 4 (control)
Root rot
1
4
4
5
PStV 2 D r o u g h t Waterlogging
3
8
3
9
2
2
2
7
1
9
8
1. S c o r e d on a m o d i f i e d 1-9 scale, w h e r e 1 = h i g h l y resistant,
2 - 3 = resistant, 4 - 5 = moderately resistant, 6 - 7 = susceptible,
and 8-9 = h i g h l y susceptible.
2 . P e a n u t s t r i p e v i r u s disease.
32 I A N 20, 2000
w a t e r l o g g i n g , a n d has w i d e a d a p t a b i l i t y f o r n o r t h e r n
C h i n a . H u a y u 1 6 i s o n e o f the g r o u n d n u t c u l t i v a r s t h a t
has the best c o m p r e h e n s i v e characteristics i n C h i n a .
H u a y u 1 6 i s suitable f o r s o w i n g i n m e d i u m o r h i g h f e r t i l i t y
sandy l o a m soil. W h e n the mean d a i l y s o i l temperature at
5 - c m d e p t h i n s p r i n g i s 1 5 ° C f o r m o r e t h a n 5 days, i t i s a n
o p t i m u m s o w i n g t i m e f o r H u a y u 16. P o l y t h e n e m u l c h i n g
c a n h e l p t o achieve its h i g h y i e l d p o t e n t i a l ( H u W e n g u a n g
e t a l . 1995). T h e o p t i m u m p l a n t densities o f H u a y u 1 6 are
1 5 0 , 0 0 0 h i l l s ha - 1 w i t h t w o seeds p e r h i l l f o r s p r i n g a n d
1 6 5 , 0 0 0 h i l l s ha - 1 f o r s u m m e r c r o p seasons.
References
H u W e n g u a n g , D u a n S h u f e n , a n d S u i Q i n g w e i . 1995.
H i g h - y i e l d t e c h n o l o g y for g r o u n d n u t . International Arachis
N e w s l e t t e r 15 ( S u p p l e m e n t ) : 2 2 .
Q i u Qingshu, W a n g Caixiang, C h e Kepeng, H u W e n g u a n g ,
W a n g C h u a n t a n g , and M i a o H u a r o n g . 1996. S e l e c t i o n
and extension o f h i g h - y i e l d i n g groundnut varieties i n
C h i n a . Pages 1 4 1 - 1 4 5 i n A c h i e v i n g h i g h g r o u n d n u t y i e l d s :
proceedings o f a n international workshop, 2 5 - 2 9 A u g
1995, L a i x i C i t y , S h a n d o n g , C h i n a ( R e n a r d , C , G o w d a ,
C . L . L . , N i g a m , S . N . , a n d Johansen, C , eds.). P a t a n c h e r u
502 324, A n d h r a Pradesh, India: International Crops Research
I n s t i t u t e f o r the S e m i - A r i d T r o p i c s .
A N e w High-yielding L o w O i l Content
Groundnut Variety
Yu Shanlin, Cao Yuliang, Gu Shuyuan, and M i n Ping
(Shandong Peanut Research Institute, L a i x i 266601,
Shandong, China)
A n e w h i g h - y i e l d i n g g r o u n d n u t v a r i e t y , H u a y u 17, w i t h
l o w o i l c o n t e n t , has b e e n d e v e l o p e d b y the S h a n d o n g
Peanut Research I n s t i t u t e , C h i n a . H u a y u 1 7 w a s d e r i v e d
from the cross L u h u a 9 x 7 9 2 6 6 u s i n g m o d i f i e d p e d i g r e e
m e t h o d , a n d w a s released i n 1999 b y t h e S h a n d o n g P r o vincial Crops A p p r o v a l Committee.
Y i e l d performance
I n t h e n e w g r o u n d n u t lines tests o f the S h a n d o n g Peanut
R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e f r o m 1993 t o 1995, H u a y u 1 7
o u t y i e l d e d t h e c h e c k L u h u a 9 b y 2 1 . 7 % ( T a b l e 1). I n
Shandong Provincial N e w Groundnut Variety T r i a l
( S P N G V T ) f r o m 1996 t o 1997, H u a y u 1 7 p r o d u c e d 1 2 . 5 %
T a b l e 1 . Y i e l d p e r f o r m a n c e s o f g r o u n d n u t v a r i e t y H u a y u 1 7 i n various tests i n C h i n a .
No. of
Average pod
Pod y i e l d increase
Test
Year
sites
y i e l d ( k g ha-1)
over control (%)
N e w lines tests
SPNGVT1
1993-95
1996-97
3
14
5265
3962
21.7
Large block y i e l d test
1998
1998
14
1
4947
9079
13.3
9
3554
14.3
H i g h - y i e l d i n g potential
U n i f o r m test in Northern China
1998-99
12.5
1. Shandong Provincial N e w Groundnut Variety Trial.
m o r e p o d y i e l d than the h i g h - y i e l d i n g c o n t r o l L u h u a 1 1 .
U n d e r n a t u r a l c o n d i t i o n s , H u a y u 1 7 s h o w e d h i g h resis-
I n t h e u n i f o r m test c o n d u c t e d d u r i n g 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 a t 1 4 sites
o f 6 p r o v i n c e s i n n o r t h e r n C h i n a , H u a y u 1 7 o u t y i e l d e d the
tance to late l e a f spot ( s c o r i n g 2 - 3 on a 1-9 scale, w h e r e 1
= no diesease, a n d 9 = 8 1 - 1 0 0 % s e v e r i t y ) a n d m o d e r a t e
control cultivar L u h u a 9 by 14.3%. Under excellent condit i o n s w i t h g o o d c u l t u r a l practices a n d m a n a g e m e n t o f
diseases, insect pests, a n d w e e d s , H u a y u 17 created a
resistance t o peanut stripe v i r u s .
n e w r e c o r d o f h i g h y i e l d i n 1998 o f 6 0 5 . 2 9 k g pods o n 0.07
ha a m o n g early m a t u r i t y groundnut varieties at L a i z h o u
A g r i c u l t u r a l Extension Station, Shandong Province.
M a i n characteristics
H u a y u 17 is a Virginia bunch groundnut variety w i t h
j u m b o p o d a n d l o w o i l content. I t matures 3 - 5 days earlier
than L u h u a 9 (Table 2) a n d 1 0 - 1 2 days earlier than L u h u a 1 1 .
T a b l e 2 . M a i n characteristics o f g r o u n d n u t v a r i e t y
1
Huayu17 .
Luhua 9
Characteristics
Huayu 17
(control)
G r o w t h habit
Erect
Days to maturity
127
Erect
132
Length of main axis (n) (cm)
44.5
N o . o f n+1 branches ( > 5 c m )
49.5
7.1
Length of n+1 branches (cm)
54.8
54.6
Leaf color
Light green
Dark green
8.5
85.4
7.6
77.7
N o . of mature pods plant
-1
100-seed mass (g)
189
Seed color
69.4
Tan
72.3
Pink
O i l content (%)
44.6
51.2
O / L ratio 2
1.62
1.39
1 . M e a n o f d a t a f r o m u n i f o r m test i n n o r t h e r n C h i n a , 1 9 9 8 .
2. O / L = oleic acid/linolcic acid.
H u a y u 1 7 has b e e n r e c o m m e n d e d f o r b o t h s p r i n g a n d
summer plantings in northern China. In order to obtain
h i g h y i e l d , g r o w e r s s h o u l d choose g o o d n a t u r a l c o n d i tions w i t h plastic m u l c h i n g techniques. T h e plant density
s h o u l d be m a i n t a i n e d at 1 5 0 , 0 0 0 to 1 8 0 , 0 0 0 holes w i t h 2
seeds p e r h o l e .
G r o u n d n u t V a r i e t y CG 7: A Boost to
M a l a w i a n Agriculture
P Subrahmanyam 1 , P J A van der M e r w e 1 ,
A J Chiyembekeza 1 , S Ngulube 1 , and H A Freeman 2
( 1 . International Crops Research Institute for the SemiA r i d Tropics ( I C R I S A T ) , PO B o x 1096, Lilongwe,
M a l a w i ; 2. I C R I S A T , PO B o x 39063, N a i r o b i , Kenya)
9.2
216.1
100-pod mass (g)
Shelling (%)
Adaptation
Groundnut is an important legume crop in smallholder
a g r i c u l t u r e i n M a l a w i , p r o v i d i n g a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 5 % o f the
a g r i c u l t u r a l i n c o m e . I t i s a n i m p o r t a n t source o f cash f o r
s m a l l h o l d e r farmers, especially w o m e n . G r o u n d n u t i s also
important in the diet, b e i n g the major source of vegetable
p r o t e i n a n d e d i b l e fat i n r u r a l M a l a w i . I t i s also a v a l u a b l e
component in crop rotation and improves soil fertility.
C u r r e n t l y , farmers i n M a l a w i g r o w m a i n l y s i x g r o u n d n u t
varieties—Chalimbana, Chitembana, Mawanga, M a l i m b a ,
M a n i Pintar, a n d C G 7 . C h a l i m b a n a i s m o s t w i d e l y g r o w n ,
o c c u p y i n g a b o u t 8 2 % o f n a t i o n a l g r o u n d n u t area.
I A N 20, 2000 33
Development and release of CG 7
had the highest adoption ( 8 2 % ) , f o l l o w e d by CG 7 ( 1 0 % ) .
CG 7, also k n o w n as I C G M S 42 or I C G V - S M 83708, is a
T h e monetary value o f this p r o d u c t i o n was U S $ 34.52 m i l l i o n
f o r C h a l i m b a n a a n d U S $ 6.42 m i l l i o n f o r C G 7 . H o w e v e r ,
CG 7 is higher y i e l d i n g , w i t h p o d y i e l d advantage of 337
high-yielding Virginia bunch variety, j o i n t l y developed
b y the D e p a r t m e n t o f A g r i c u l t u r a l Research a n d T e c h n i c a l
S e r v i c e s ( D A R T S ) a n d I C R I S A T . I t w a s released f o r p r o d u c t i o n in 1990, recommended for all g r o u n d n u t - g r o w i n g
areas i n M a l a w i . I t i s s u i t a b l e f o r b o t h c o n f e c t i o n e r y use
and o i l extraction, and is more tolerant of drought and
k g h a - 1 a n d seed y i e l d a d v a n t a g e o f 2 3 6 k g h a - 1 o v e r
Chalimbana, M a n i Pintar, M a l i m b a , and M a w a n g a . A t current
p r i c e s a n d e x c h a n g e rate, t h e y i e l d a d v a n t a g e o f 2 3 6 k g
ha*1 i s w o r t h M K 8 2 4 6 ( = U S $ 118) p e r hectare. T h u s , f o r
e v e r y hectare o f l o c a l v a r i e t i e s r e p l a c e d b y C G 7 , n a t i o n a l
y i e l d c a n e x c e e d 2 tha - 1 .
a g r i c u l t u r a l i n c o m e w o u l d increase b y U S $ 1 1 8 . I f e v e n
h a l f the area c u r r e n t l y u n d e r l o c a l v a r i e t i e s i s r e p l a c e d b y
m u c h easier t o h a r v e s t t h a n C h a l i m b a n a . P o t e n t i a l seed
CG 7 adoption trends in Malawi
C G 7 , t h e n a t i o n a l a g r i c u l t u r a l i n c o m e w o u l d increase b y
U S $ 1 7 m i l l i o n p e r year. T h e s e c a l c u l a t i o n s are b a s e d o n
t h e c u r r e n t p r i c e o f M K 3 5 k g - 1 a n d a n e x c h a n g e rate o f
A n a l y s i s o f C G 7 a d o p t i o n trends i s based o n data o b t a i n e d
U S $ 1 = M K 70.
f r o m the F a m i n e E a r l y W a r n i n g System ( F E W S ) , L i l o n g w e ,
F u r t h e r a n a l y s i s w a s c o n d u c t e d , c o m p a r i n g the y i e l d
and economic contribution of CG 7 and Chalimbana at
M a l a w i . T h e data w e r e o r i g i n a l l y collected b y the Department
( E P A s ) i n M a l a w i . T h e data were then aggregated b y the
d i f f e r e n t a d o p t i o n rates, a s s u m i n g c u r r e n t y i e l d l e v e l s f o r
t h e t w o v a r i e t i e s ( T a b l e 2 ) . T h e results c l e a r l y s h o w t h e
substantial e c o n o m i c benefit to be d e r i v e d from replacing
R u r a l D e v e l o p m e n t Project ( R D P ) and finally aggregated
C h a l i m b a n a w i t h h i g h e r - y i e l d i n g varieties such as CG 7.
o f E x t e n s i o n u n d e r the M i n i s t r y o f A g r i c u l t u r e a n d I r r i g a t i o n Development from different Extension Planning Areas
b y the A g r i c u l t u r a l D e v e l o p m e n t D i v i s i o n ( A D D ) . Inform a t i o n w a s a v a i l a b l e o n area a n d p r o d u c t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t
g r o u n d n u t varieties f o r f o u r consecutive seasons from 1996/
9 7 t o 1 9 9 9 / 2 0 0 0 . T h e a d o p t i o n rate o f a p a r t i c u l a r v a r i e t y
AREA ('000 ha)
Adoption (% of total groundnut area)
w a s c o m p u t e d as a percentage, i.e., area u n d e r that v a r i e t y
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
a s a p r o p o r t i o n o f t o t a l g r o u n d n u t area d u r i n g that season.
A d o p t i o n t r e n d s o f C G 7 o v e r t h e past f o u r seasons are
p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e 1 . A d o p t i o n has increased i n r o u g h l y
geometric progression t o the current level o f 10.15%.
T h e s e t r e n d s suggest t h a t C G 7 area i n t h e n e x t season i s
l i k e l y t o b e a l m o s t d o u b l e t h e c u r r e n t area.
Yield and economic contribution of different
groundnut varieties
17.87
1015
8.91
4.9
2.28
1.6
0.02 0.02
1996/97
1996/99
1997/98
1999/2000
Season
Table 1 shows the p r o d u c t i o n , adoption, and economic
c o n t r i b u t i o n o f different groundnut varieties. C h a l i m b a n a
F i g u r e 1 . A d o p t i o n trends o f g r o u n d n u t v a r i e t y C G 7 i n
M a l a w i , 1996/97 to 1999/2000.
T a b l e 1 . P r o d u c t i o n levels a n d v a l u e o f o u t p u t o f d i f f e r e n t g r o u n d n u t varieties i n M a l a w i , 2 0 0 0 .
Variety
Chalimbana
CG 7
Malimba
M a n i Pintar
Mawanga
J L 24
T o t a l (national)
34 I A N 20, 2000
Area
(ha)
Adoption
Seed y i e l d
( k g ha-')
Production
(%)
(t)
Value o f output
('000 M K )
144,731
17,869
10,711
1,889
897
3
176,100
82
10
6
1
0.5
0
681.46
1025.69
703.58
595.55
775.92
1000.00
69,040
12,830
5,275
788
487
2
88,422
2,416,411
449,036
184,632
27,563
17,052
74
3,094,768
Value o f output
('000 U S $ )
34,520
6,415
2,638
394
244
1
44,212
T a b l e 2 . Economic value o f production f r o m C h a l i m b a n a
i n recent years several n o n - g o v e r n m e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n s
a n d C G 7 a t different adoption rates i n M a l a w i
( N G O s ) ( A c t i o n A i d , Self H e l p Development, P L A N International, C A R E M a l a w i , W o r l d V i s i o n M a l a w i , N A S F A M ,
Catholic R e l i e f Services), and other d e v e l o p m e n t a l o r g a -
Variety
(Adoption
rate)
Seed
yield
(t)
Income
(US$
million)
Income gap
(US$
million)
n i z a t i o n s such a s M A F E a n d P R O S C A R P h a v e b e e n a c t i v e l y i n v o l v e d . T h e i r efforts target the i n f o r m a l seed s u p -
C G 7 (10%)
Chalimbana (10%)
12,830
8,523
6.415
4.262
2.153
C G 7 (25%)
Chalimbana (25%)
31,609
21,001
15.805
10.501
5.304
p l y s y s t e m ( c o m m u n i t y - b a s e d o r f a r m e r - t o - f a r m e r seed
exchange) for CG 7, w h i c h is gradually being distributed
t o c o m m u n i t i e s w h e r e these o r g a n i z a t i o n s are a c t i v e . T h e
C G 7 (40%)
Chalimbana (40%)
50,575
33,602
25.287
16.801
8.486
recently initiated M a i z e Productivity Task Force, specific a l l y A c t i o n G r o u p 2 , w a s also l a r g e l y i n v o l v e d i n estab-
Since the y i e l d gap is w i d e , farmers can obtain significant
benefits even f r o m s m a l l p l o t s . C a s h i n c o m e w i l l i m p r o v e ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r w o m e n farmers, w h o produce a m a j o r share
o f g r o u n d n u t i n s m a l l h o l d e r areas. Besides, the a d d i t i o n a l
p r o d u c t i o n w i l l h e l p i m p r o v e the n u t r i t i o n a l status o f househ o l d s . F u r t h e r studies o n C G 7 a d o p t i o n a n d e c o n o m i c
benefits w i l l b e c a r r i e d o u t d u r i n g the 2 0 0 0 / 0 1 g r o w i n g
season b y a d m i n i s t e r i n g s t r u c t u r e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e s .
F u t u r e trends
U n t i l 1997, a d o p t i o n o f C G 7 remained rather l o w . There
w e r e several reasons, b u t the m a j o r b o t t l e n e c k w a s n o n a v a i l a b i l i t y o f seed. T h e r e i s n o o r g a n i z e d g r o u n d n u t
seed p r o d u c t i o n a n d d e l i v e r y s y s t e m i n p l a c e i n M a l a w i ,
and almost no interest from private seed companies. H o w e v e r ,
l i s h i n g t h e N a t i o n a l S m a l l h o l d e r Seed P r o d u c e r ' s A s s o c i a t i o n ( N A S S P A ) , w h i c h i s h e l p i n g t o accelerate t h e
spread o f i m p r o v e d c r o p v a r i e t i e s i n c l u d i n g C G 7 .
A n o t h e r factor i s the establishment o f t w o m a j o r
p r o j e c t s f u n d e d b y the U n i t e d States A g e n c y f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t ( U S A I D ) , the I C R I S A T - D A R T S U S A I D Project o n G r o u n d n u t and Pigeonpea, and the
G A L D A L P r o j e c t . E n s u r i n g the p r o d u c t i o n a n d s u p p l y o f
breeder a n d basic seed o f C G 7 i s a k e y c o m p o n e n t o f t h e
I C R I S A T - D A R T S project. T h e G A L D A L Project w i l l b e
a c t i v e l y i n v o l v e d i n p r o m o t i n g c e r t i f i e d seed p r o d u c t i o n
t h r o u g h seed p r o j e c t s a n d o t h e r m e c h a n i s m s . T h e g o a l i s
t o m a x i m i z e the n u m b e r o f farmers w h o receive C G 7 seed.
A s a result, w e e x p e c t t h a t n o n - a v a i l a b i l i t y o f C G 7 seed
w i l l n o l o n g e r be a m a j o r c o n s t r a i n t i n the near f u t u r e .
A c k n o w l e d g m e n t . W e are g r a t e f u l t o U S A I D , M a l a w i f o r
f i n a n c i a l assistance ( G r a n t N o . 6 1 2 - G - 0 0 - 9 9 - 0 0 2 2 1 - 0 0 o f
Project N o . 612-0235).
I A N 20, 2000
35
Biotechnology
P a r t i a l Characterization of the c D N A
Clone of a L o w T e m p e r a t u r e Induced
Gene f r o m G r o u n d n u t
R S Dave and R K M i t r a (Nuclear A g r i c u l t u r e and
B i o t e c h n o l o g y D i v i s i o n , Bhabha A t o m i c Research
Centre, M u m b a i 400 085, Maharashtra, India)
G r o u n d n u t (Arachis hypogaea) p l a n t s s h o w m a x i m u m
g r o w t h a t 2 8 ° C b u t e x p e r i e n c e severe m e t a b o l i c p e r t u r b a tions w h e n exposed to temperatures b e l o w 12°C ( B e l l et
al. 1994). H o w e v e r , groundnut cultivar T A G 24 (bunch
t y p e d e v e l o p e d a t the B h a b h a A t o m i c Research C e n t r e ,
M u m b a i , I n d i a ) i s able t o w i t h s t a n d a n a b r u p t temperature
d o w n s h i f t ( 2 8 ° C t o 1 2 ° C ) a n d s u r v i v e a t the r e d u c e d t e m p e r a t u r e f o r several d a y s w i t h o u t a n y apparent i n j u r i e s .
T A G 2 4 r e c o v e r s r a p i d l y f r o m the stress and resumes n o r m a l g r o w t h a t its o p t i m a l g r o w t h t e m p e r a t u r e ( 2 8 ° C ) .
G r o w t h o f T A G 2 4 plants a t the reduced temperature elicits
several adaptive responses ( e . g . , a c c u m u l a t i o n o f s o l u b l e
sugars, s o l u b l e p o l y s a c c h a r i d e s , a m i n o acids, a n d p r o l i n e ;
d e v i a t i o n s f r o m n o r m a l g r o w t h p a t t e r n s u c h a s increased
g r o w t h o f r o o t s ; a n d a b i l i t y t o c a r r y o u t net p h o t o s y n t h e sis) t h a t are w i d e l y k n o w n t o b e associated w i t h a t o l e r a n t
p h e n o t y p e ( D a v e a n d M i t r a 1993). I n o r d e r t o understand
the m o l e c u l a r basis o f the adaptations described, a c D N A
l i b r a r y was c o n s t r u c t e d to isolate l o w temperature induced
genes as they are expected to play a critical role in m o d u l a t i n g
these adaptive responses.
G r o u n d n u t seedlings w e r e g r o w n a t 2 8 ° C ( 1 2 - h day/12-h
n i g h t ) f o r 1 5 days a n d t h e n c o l d s h o c k e d f o r 1 0 days a t
1 2 ° C ( 1 2 - h d a y / 1 2 - h n i g h t ) . C o l d s h o c k e d seedlings w e r e
d e a c c l i m a t i z e d a t 2 8 ° C ( 1 2 - h d a y / 1 2 - h n i g h t ) f o r 2 days.
C o n t r o l seedlings were g r o w n at 2 8 ° C ( 1 2 - h day/12-h
n i g h t ) f o r 2 5 days.
A c D N A l i b r a r y was constructed i n p U C 1 8 ( P h a r m a c i a )
u s i n g m R N A o b t a i n e d f r o m leaves o f c o l d s h o c k e d
g r o u n d n u t seedlings. T i m e s a v e r T m c D N A synthesis k i t
(Pharmacia) was used t o synthesize d o u b l e stranded c D N A
u s i n g o l i g o ( d T ) p r i m e r . Eco R1/Not1 adapters ( P h a r m a c i a )
w e r e l i g a t e d t o either ends o f the c D N A s , w h i c h w e r e t h e n
c l o n e d i n t o the Eco R 1 site o f p U C 18. T h e c D N A l i b r a r y
w a s screened b y c o l o n y h y b r i d i z a t i o n ( u s i n g 3 2 P-labeled
c o l d shocked c D N A as a probe). A f t e r p r i m a r y and
s e c o n d a r y s c r e e n i n g w i t h the c o l d s h o c k e d c D N A p r o b e ,
t w e l v e p o s i t i v e c l o n e s w e r e i d e n t i f i e d . O f these, 5 c l o n e s
designated a s p R D 1 , p R D 2 , p R D 8 , p R D 1 1 , a n d p R D 1 2 d i d
36 I A N 20, 2000
n o t y i e l d a n y insert e i t h e r d u e t o absence o f a n insert o r
t h e Eco R1 site m a y h a v e been lost. T h e insert sizes of
o t h e r c l o n e s are: p R D 3 (0.3 k b ) , p R D 4 ( 0 . 7 5 k b ) , p R D 5
( 0 . 3 2 k b ) , p R D 6 ( 0 . 3 6 k b w i t h a n i n t e r n a l H i n d I I I site),
p R D 7 (0.4 k b ) , p R D 9 (0.2 k b ) , and p R D 1 0 (0.2 k b ) . A l l these
c l o n e s appeared t o b e p a r t i a l . N o r t h e r n a n a l y s i s o f these
clones w i t h the total c o n t r o l ( 2 8 ° C ) and c o l d shocked
m R N A s showed varied expression pattern. p R D 3 , p R D 4 ,
and p R D 6 showed expression upon c o l d shock o n l y ,
whereas p R D 2 a n d p R D 9 d e m o n s t r a t e d e x p r e s s i o n b o t h
i n c o n t r o l ( 2 8 ° C ) a s w e l l a s i n c o l d s h o c k e d leaves. p R D 5
s h o w e d d o w n r e g u l a t i o n u p o n c o l d s h o c k . O f these
c l o n e s p R D 6 s h o w e d the strongest e x p r e s s i o n u p o n c o l d
s h o c k . W e designate t h i s c l o n e a s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a
p u t a t i v e gene Ahlti ( A r a c h i s hypogaea l o w t e m p e r a t u r e
i n d u c e d ) . I t i s apparent that t h i s c l o n e o f 0 . 3 6 k b i s t h e
gene i n d u c e d due t o c o l d s h o c k a n d its t r a n s c r i p t s persist
a t r e d u c e d l e v e l d u r i n g d e a c c l i m a t i o n a t 2 8 ° C (at least u p
t o 4 8 h ) ( F i g . 1).
For further functional characterization, p R D 6 was
sequenced on b o t h the strands w i t h the M 13 f o r w a r d (-40)
a n d reverse ( - 5 0 ) s e q u e n c i n g p r i m e r s u s i n g Sequenase
PCR Product Sequencing K i t ( U S B - A m e r s h a m ) . Analysis
o f t h e n u c l e i c a c i d sequence s h o w s that i t represents t h e
R T CS DA
Figure 1. N o r t h e r n blot analysis of
Ahlti expression in g r o u n d n u t (cv
T A G 2 4 ) leaves. T o t a l R N A (50 µ g )
f r o m leaves of control ( R T ) , cold
shocked ( C S ) , and deacclimatized
( D A ) plants was electrophoresed
through a 1% formaldehyde agarose
gel. R N A was t r a n s f e r r e d on to
HybondN
nylon
membrane
(Amersham)
according
to
the
manufacturer's instructions. Blot
was probed w i t h a 3 2 P-labeled c D N A
insert p R D 6 . T h e probe h y b r i d i z e d
to a 2.88 kb cold-induced t r a n s c r i p t .
A
TTA
TGG
CGT
AAG
TTC
GAC
GAT
L
W
R
K
F
D
D
GGT
TTT
GTT
G
F
V
TGG
CAT
TGA
W
H
*
CCT
GTA
P
V
GAA
GGC
GAG
E
TCA TTC
S
CCT
CGt
TCT
CCA
G
S
P
T
P
TTT
TGT
GCA
GAT
AAA AAA
TTT
GTT
AAG
CTG
TGT
G T A TGG
ATA
GTT
CAT
CTC
TGC
CTA TCT
GTT
TGT
AGA
P
ACC
TTC
GGC
F
G
G
GAA
TGC
154
CCA
CCT
TGA
205
CAG
CTA TGT AAC
TAT
GAA
TAA TTA
T
TAA
T
A
ACC
TTA
AAT
52
GTA AGC
TGA T C A GAA CTG A G A
TTG
AGG
R
103
GTT
GAA
GGC
GGA
AAT
GTA TGA TGT
GTG
R
CGC
G
TGC
E
GTT
V
N
TGT AAG
TTC
CCC
R
CAG A A A A C A A A A T A T
TTA AAA
TTA ATT
CGC
M
AAT
TAT
ATG
F
GGC
H
TGA A T A
TTG
CAT
G
TAC
TAT
TTG
256
307
T C G CGA AAA AAA AAA AA
Figure 2. Ahlti sequence.
N o t e : Features of the sequence:
<1-360
mRNA
<1—109
c o d i n g sequence
2-82
Y-box binding motif
289-294
Hind llI
304-309
F a r U p s t r e a m E l e m e n t o f p l a n t p o l y a d e n y l a t i o n signal
318-323
F a r U p s t r e a m E l e m e n t o f p l a n t p o l y a d e n y l a t i o n signal
336-341
352-360
N e a r U p s t r e a m E l e m e n t o f p l a n t p o l y a d e n y l a t i o n signal
Poly
A
tail
3 ' e n d o f A h l t i ( F i g . 2 ) . T h e Far U p s t r e a m E l e m e n t a n d the
References
N e a r Upstream Element of plant p o l y a d e n y l a t i o n signals
are p r e s e n t u p s t r e a m o f t h e p o l y A t a i l .
Bell, M . J . , Michaels, T . E . , M c C u l l o u g h , D.E., and
S e a r c h f o r sequence h o m o l o g y i n t h e S w i s s - P r o t d a t a base r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e p a r t i a l c o d i n g sequence o f A h l t i
shows h o m o l o g y to eukaryotic C C A A T - b i n d i n g ( Y - b o x )
protein f a m i l y especially to human C C A A T - b i n d i n g transcription factor subunit B ( C B F B ) , elongation factor TU
of M i c r o c o c c u s luteus, and Brevibacterium linens and
E s c h e r i c h i a c o l i c o l d shock protein C s p A ( D a v e 1997).
A Y - b o x i s present i n t h e p r o m o t e r r e g i o n o f t w o t e m p e r a t u r e - i n d u c e d genes f r o m A r a b i d o p s i s t h a l i a n a ,
rd29A
and rd 29 B ( Y a m a g u c h i - S h i n o z a k i and Shinozaki 1994).
These observations suggest that A h l t i p o s s i b l y encodes
a c o l d induced C C A A T - b i n d i n g transcription factor i n v o l v e d
in the transcriptional activation of other c o l d induced
g e n e s . T h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n f a c t o r C B F 1 has b e e n s h o w n t o
i n d u c e C O R ( c o l d r e g u l a t e d ) genes a n d e n h a n c e f r e e z i n g
tolerance in A r a b i d o p s i s (Jaglo-Ottosen et al. 1998). I n v o l v e m e n t o f A h l t i i n t r a n s c r i p t i o n a l a c t i v a t i o n m i g h t also i n
T o l l e n a a r , M . 1994. P h o t o s y n t h e t i c r e s p o n s e t o c h i l l i n g
i n peanut. C r o p Science 3 4 : 1 0 1 4 - 1 0 2 2 .
D a v e , R , and M i t r a , R . 1993. Gene expression i n response
t o l o w t e m p e r a t u r e i n g r o u n d n u t . Pages 2 2 3 - 2 3 2
in
Proceedings o f D A E S y m p o s i u m o n Photosynthesis and
Plant M o l e c u l a r B i o l o g y , M a r c h 1 7 - 1 9 , 1 9 9 3 , J a w a h a r l a l
Nehru University, N e w D e l h i , India. N e w D e l h i , India:
Jawaharlal N e h r u University.
D a v e , R . S . 1997. G e n e e x p r e s s i o n i n response t o l o w t e m perature i n g r o u n d n u t . P h . D . thesis, M u m b a i U n i v e r s i t y ,
M u m b a i , India.
Jaglo-Ottosen,
K.R.,
Schabenberger,
O.,
Gilmour,
and
S.J.,
Thomashow,
Zarka,
D.G.,
M.F.
1998.
A r a b i d o p s i s C B F 1 overexpression induces C O R genes
a n d enhances f r e e z i n g t o l e r a n c e . S c i e n c e 2 8 0 : 1 0 4 - 1 0 6 .
part be responsible for the tolerant genotype T A G 24. The
Y a m a g u c h i - S h i n o z a k i , K . , and S h i n o z a k i , K . 1 9 9 4 . A
n u c l e o t i d e s e q u e n c e r e p o r t e d appears i n t h e E M B L , G e n e
n o v e l c i s - a c t i n g element in an A r a b i d o p s i s gene is i n v o l v e d
B a n k a n d D D J B N u c l e o t i d e S e q u e n c e Databases u n d e r
in responsiveness to d r o u g h t , l o w temperature, or h i g h
the accession n u m b e r Z 8 4 8 1 9 .
salt stress. Plant C e l l 6 : 2 5 1 - 2 6 4 .
I A N 20, 2000
37
Sequence Assay and Expression in E. coli
DH5 of Peanut Stripe Virus Coat Protein
Gene
Li Guangcun 1 , Bi Yuping 1 , Guo Baotai 1 , Chen
Xiaoyan 2 , W a n g X i u l i 1 , Dong Weibo 3 , and Lu Yanhui 1
( 1 . Biotechnology Research Center, Shandong Academy
of Agricultural Sciences, Jinan 250100, China; 2. Shandong
Cancer Hospital and Institute, Jinan 250117, China;
3. Shandong Peanut Research Institute, L a i x i 266601,
Shandong, China)
Peanut s t r i p e v i r u s ( P S t V ) i s a m e m b e r o f the p o t y v i r u s
g r o u p a n d o c c u r s i n m o s t o f the r e g i o n s o f the w o r l d
where groundnut is g r o w n . Y i e l d reductions of more than
2 0 % h a v e been r e p o r t e d ( Z e y o n g 1988). N o n e o f the c u l t i v a t e d peanut genotypes are k n o w n t o b e resistant t o P S t V .
A s p a r t o f a p r o j e c t a i m e d a t p r o d u c i n g coat p r o t e i n
( c p ) m e d i a t e d t r a n s g e n i c resistance t o P S t V i n p l a n t , w e
have c l o n e d P S t V - c p gene. T o t a l R N A o f P S t V w a s isolated
f r o m leaves o f g r o u n d n u t c o l l e c t e d i n S h a n d o n g p r o v i n c e
i n C h i n a a n d p u r i f i e d f o l l o w i n g the m e t h o d d e s c r i b e d b y
N a i d u e t a l . ( 1 9 9 1 ) . P S t V - c p c D N A was obtained b y reverse
transcriptase polymerase chain reaction ( R T - P C R ) using
p r i m e r s s y n t h e s i z e d a c c o r d i n g t o the p u b l i s h e d sequence
(Cassidy et al. 1993). T h e d s - c D N A was recovered f r o m
agarose g e l , t h e n d i r e c t l y l i g a t e d i n t o p G E M - T v e c t o r .
C l o n e s c o n t a i n i n g P S t V - c p c D N A sequences w e r e f u r t h e r
c o n f i r m e d b y P C R a n d r e s t r i c t i o n endonuclease m a p p i n g
38 I A N 20, 2000
a n d r e c o m b i n a n t c D N A c l o n e s w i t h inserts o f a b o u t 1.1
k b i n l e n g t h w e r e selected. O n e s u c h c l o n e , d e s i g n a t e d a s
p G E M - S t V 7 , was sequenced u s i n g the d i d e o x y c h a i n
t e r m i n a t i o n m e t h o d . T h e sequence analysis w a s p e r f o r m e d
u s i n g the P C / G E N E M i c r o s o f t a n d c o m p a r e d w i t h the
p u b l i s h e d sequence ( C a s s i d y et a l . 1993, G u n a s i n g h e et
a l . 1994, F l a s i n s k i e t a l . 1 9 9 6 ) . T h e i n s e r t e d f r a g m e n t o f
p G E M - S t V 7 c o n t a i n e d the f u l l c a p s i d p r o t e i n g e n e a n d
the 3 ' u n t r a n s l a t e d r e g i o n i s s h o w n i n F i g u r e 1 a l o n g w i t h
the p r e d i c t e d a m i n o a c i d sequence. T h e c D N A sequence
beginning from 5' terminal, contained an open reading
f r a m e ( O R F ) o f 8 6 7 b p ( i n c l u d i n g the start c o d o n a n d t h e
stop c o d o n ) a n d the 3' r e g i o n c o n t a i n e d a n o n - c o d i n g
region o f 223 bp. The O R F can code for P S t V - c p o f 287
a m i n o acids w i t h m o l e c u l a r mass o f 33,500 D a . C o m p a r i s o n
o f the P S t V - c p c D N A sequence w i t h the p u b l i s h e d data
r e v e a l e d sequence i d e n t i t i e s u p t o 9 6 - 9 9 . 5 % , w i t h the e n d
that the stop c o d o n w a s T A G instead o f T A A .
T h e inserts o f p G E M - S t V 7 w e r e s u b c l o n e d i n t o the
Escherichia coli e x p r e s s i o n p l a s m i d p B V 2 2 0 ( Z h a n g
Z h i q i n g e t a l . 1 9 8 8 ) w i t h PRPL c o n t a c t p r o m o t e r ( c a l l e d
p B V - S t V ) . E x p o n e n t i a l l y g r o w i n g cultures o f t r a n s f o r m e d
E. coli D H 5 a ( c a l l e d p B V - S t V - D H 5 a) w e r e p l a c e d in a
w a t e r b a t h f o r 1 , 2 , 4 , 6 , 8 , 1 0 , a n d 1 2 h . T h e samples w e r e
treated a n d e l e c t r o p h o r e s e d i n 1 2 % p o l y a c r y l a m i d e gels
( S D S - P A G E ) and transferred on to nitrocellulose m e m b r a n e .
T h e P S t V c a p s i d p r o t e i n ( 3 3 . 5 K D ) w a s detected u s i n g
p o l y c l o n a l antisera t o P S t V ( C u l v e r e t a l . 1989) i n w e s t e r n
blots ( F i g . 2).
G
V D T
A
K D K
K E
K S N K G K G
GGC GTG GAT ACT GCC AAG GAC AAG AAA GAG AAG AGC AAC AAA GGA AAA GGT
P E S
S
E G S G N
N S R G
T
E N Q
CCT GAA AGC AGT GAA GGG TCA GGT AAC AAT AGT CGT GGA ACA GAG AAT CAA
S
M R D K D V N A G S
K G K
I V P
TCA ATG AGA GAC AAG GAT GTG AAT GCT GGT TCA AAA GGA AAG ATT GTT CCT
R L Q K
I T
K R M D L P M
V K G N
CGG CTT CAG AAG ATC ACA AAG AGA ATG GAT TTG CCA ATG GTG AAA GGG AAT
V I
L N L D H L L D Y K
P E Q
T D
GTG ATC TTG AAT TTA GAT CAT CTT TTG GAT TAC AAG CCA GAG CAA ACT GAT
L F N T R A
T K M Q F
E M W Y N A
CTT TTC AAC ACA AGA GCA ACA AAG ATG CAG TTT GAA ATG TGG TAC AAT TCT
V
K G
E Y E
I
D D E Q M S T V M N
GTG AAG GGC GAG TAT GAA ATA GAT GAT GAA CAG ATG TCA ATT GTG ATG AAC
G F M V W C I
D N G T
S P D V N
G
GGC TTT ATG GTG TGG TGT ATT GAC AAT GGC ACT TCA CCG GAT GTA AAT GGA
T W V M M D G
D E Q
V E Y P L
K P
ACA TGG GTG ATG ATG GAC GGA GAC GAG CAA GTG GAA TAT CCT CTC AAA CCA
M V
E N A K
P T L R
Q I M H H F S
ATG GTT GAG AAT GCA AAA CCT ACA CTT CGT CAA ATC ATG CAC CAT TTC TCA
D A A E A Y I
E M R N S
E R
P C M
GAT GCA GCT GAA GCA TAC ATT GAG ATG AGA AAT TCT GAG CGA CCA TGC ATG
P R Y G L L R N L R D K N
L A R Y
CCT AGG TAT GGA TTG CTT CGG AAT TTG AGG GAT AAA AAT CTA GCT CGC TAC
A F D F Y E
V T S K
T S
D R A R E
GCT TTC GAC TTC TAT GAA GTG ACT TCC AAG ACA TCA GAT CGT GCA AGG GAA
A V A
Q M K A A A L S
N V N S
K L
GCA GTA GCA CAG ATG AAG GCA GCA GCC CTC AGC AAT GTT AAC AGC AAG TTG
F G
L D G N V A T T
S
E N T E
R H
TTT GGA CTT GAT GGG AAT GTG GCA ACA ACC AGC GAG AAT ACT GAA AGG CAC
T A
R D V N Q N M H T
L L G M G S
ACT GCA AGG GAC GTT AAT CAG AAC ATG CAC ACA CTT CTT GGC ATG GGT TCT
A Q
GCG CAG TAG AGATTGGGTCAACCG ATCACAGTTAGCATCTCGCGTCGCTGAATAGT
ATCATATAGTAATCTTITATGTTCTCTTTAGrnCAGTGTGGTTlTACCACCATTATTTA
ACTATTGTGATAGTGTGGTTGGTCCACCAACATATTGCGAGTACTTTATG TTTATGAGT
AAGCCGGAAGAACCATTGCAATAGCGAGGGCATGCAGAGTGATTCTATCATGTGGGAT
CCCG
31
48
65
82
99
116
133
150
167
184
201
218
235
252
269
286
288
Figure 1. Nucleotide sequence of clone pGEM-StV7 of peanut stripe virus (PStV) capsid protein
gene and deduced amino acid sequence. The initiation and termination codons are underlined.
IAN 20, 2000 39
1
2
3
Pathology
Figure 2. S D S - P A G E analysis of the
expression of PStV-cp gene in E. coli
DH5
(1) p B V - S t V - D H 5 a at 0 h
induction; (2) p B V - S t V - D H 5 at 4 h
induction; and (3) control ( p B V 2 2 0 D H 5 ) at 4 h induction.
Epidemiology of Late L e a f Spot and Rust
of G r o u n d n u t in G u e r r e r o , Mexico
D
H
Noriega-Cantu 1 ,
J
Pereyra-Hernandez 2 ,
I C Joaqufn-Torres 1 , G M o r a - A g u i l e r a 3 , D NietoAngel 3 , M A Cantu-Almaguer 1 , and N O GomezMontiel 1 ( 1 . Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones
Forestales y Agropecuarias, Campo Exptal. Iguala, a.p. #
5, CP 40000, Iguala, Guerrero, M e x i c o ; 2. Universidad
Aut6noma de Guerrero, Esc. Sup. de Agricultura, Iguala,
Guerrero, Mexico; 3. Colegio de Postgraduados, Montecillo,
Mexico)
References
Late
l e a f spot
caused
by
Phaeoisariopsis personata
and
C a s s i d y , B . G . , S h e r w o o d , J . L . , and Nelson R . S . 1993.
rust Puccini a arachidis are the m a i n f o l i a r diseases of
C l o n i n g o f the c a p s i d p r o t e i n gene f r o m a b l o t c h isolate o f
g r o u n d n u t i n G u e r r e r o , M e x i c o . B o t h diseases are e n d e m i c
p e a n u t s t r i p e v i m s . A r c h i v e s o f V i r o l o g y 128(3—4):287—
i n the g r o u n d n u t - p r o d u c i n g region o f Guerrero and g e n e r a l l y
297
appear t o g e t h e r c a u s i n g severe d e f o l i a t i o n a n d e a r l y p o d
C u l v e r , J . N . , S h e r w o o d , J . L , and S a n b o r n , M R . 1989. Use
o f m o n o c l o n a l a n t i b o d i e s i n d e t e c t i o n and s e r o l o g i c a l
c l a s i f i c a t i o n o f p e a n u t stripe v i r u s . Peanut Science 1:6366.
m a t u r i t y . Y i e l d losses, due t o the c o m b i n e d effect o f these
diseases, are about 3 5 % ( M a r t i n e z a n d D i a z 1985, J o a q u i n
and A y a l a 1996). T h e application o f some fungicides reduces
the i n c i d e n c e o f b o t h diseases a n d increases the p r o d u c t i o n u p t o 1.01 c o m p a r e d t o the untreated f i e l d s ( M a r t i n e z
F l a s i n s k i , S., G u n a s i n g h e , U . B . , G o n z a l e s , R . A . , and
a n d D i a z 1 9 8 5 ) . T h i s s t u d y w a s c o n d u c t e d t o assess three
C a s s i d y , B . G . 1996. T h e c D N A sequence a n d i n f e c t i o u s
d i f f e r e n t f u n g i c i d e p r o g r a m s t o c o n t r o l late l e a f spot a n d
t r a n s c r i p t s o f peanut stripe v i r u s . Gene 171(2):299—300.
rust u n d e r the f i e l d c o n d i t i o n o f N o r t h G u e r r e r o . A n e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l approach was used to compare disease progress
Gunasinghe, U.B.,
F l a s i n s k i , S., Nelson, R . S . , and
C a s s i d y , B . G . 1994. N u c l e o t i d e sequence a n d g e n o m e
o r g a n i z a t i o n o f p e a n u t stripe p o t y v i r u s . J o u r n a l o f G e n eral V i r o l o g y 75(Pt 9 ) : 2 5 1 9 - 2 5 2 5 .
N a i d u , R . A . , C o l l i n s , G . B . , and G h a b r i a l , S.A. 1 9 9 1 .
curves obtained as a result of f u n g i c i d e treatments. Disease
progress data w e r e a n a l y z e d w i t h t h e G o m p e r t z , l o g i s t i c ,
and m o n o m o l e c u l a r m o d e l s as w e l l as the area under disease
progress c u r v e ( A U D P C ) and the f i n a l disease i n t e n s i t y
( Y f ) in order to summarize, compare, and classify the epidem ics
S y m p t o m - m o d u l a t i n g p r o p e r t i e s o f peanut stunt v i r u s
a n d t o b r i n g o u t features that w e r e n o t o b v i o u s f r o m the
satellite R N A sequence variants. M o l e c u l a r P l a n t - M i c r o b e
data alone ( C a m p b e l l and M a d d e n 1990).
Interactions 4 : 2 6 8 - 2 7 5 .
Z e y o n g , X . 1988. Research o n peanut stripe v i r u s disease
in the People's Republic of China. Pages 6 - 7 in C o o r d i n a t i o n
o f research o n peanut s t r i p e v i r u s . Patancheru 502 3 2 5 ,
A n d h r a Pradesh, I n d i a : I n t e r n a t i o n a l C r o p s Research I n stitute f o r the S e m i - A r i d T r o p i c s .
F i e l d trials w e r e c o n d u c t e d d u r i n g s p r i n g - s u m m e r (SS)
cropping season of 1997 and 1998. A randomized block design
w a s used w i t h f i v e r e p l i c a t e s . E a c h r e p l i c a t e c o n s i s t e d o f
2 0 m 2 , w i t h a n i n t e r r o w s p a c i n g o f 8 0 c m and p l a n t s p a c i n g
o f 4 0 c m . G r o u n d n u t c u l t i v a r R i o Balsas w a s s o w n d u r i n g
the t h i r d f o r t n i g h t o f June i n 1997 a n d i n f i r s t f o r t n i g h t o f
July in 1998. Four fungicides w e r e used for c h e m i c a l protec-
Zhang Zhiqing, Hou Yunte, Li Yuying, Zhao Xiaoxia,
t i o n : c a r b e n d a z i m at 2 0 0 g a.i. ha - 1 ( C ) , c o p p e r o x y h c l o r i d e
Z h o u Y u a n , D u a n S h u m i n , and Y a o L i h o n g . 1988. H i g h
at 5 0 0 g a . i . ha - 1 ( C u ) , z i n e b at 4 8 0 g a . i . ha - 1 ( Z ) , a n d
l e v e l e x p r e s s i o n o f h u m a n i n t e r f e r o n - y c D N A i n E . coli
c h l o r o t h a l o n i l at 1.13 kg a.i. ha - 1 ( C L ) . Treatments consisted
w i t h a p l a s m i d c o n t a i n i n g PRPL p r o m o t e r a n d C i t s 8 5 7
o f three sprays o f the f o l l o w i n g f u n g i c i d e c o m b i n a t i o n s
gene. C h i n e s e Journal o f V i r o l o g y 4 ( 2 ) : 9 7 - 1 0 1 .
sprayed i n d i v i d u a l l y a t 14-day intervals starting w i t h v i s u a l
40 I A N 20, 2000
expression o f s y m p t o m s : ( 1 ) C - Z - C L , ( 2 ) C L - C u - Z , ( 3 ) Z - C -
A U D P C a n d Y f ( T a b l e 1). D r y mass a n d p o d y i e l d w e r e
C L , a n d ( 4 ) N o n - s p r a y e d ( c o n t r o l ) . S i x plants per p l o t w e r e
also h i g h e r i n C - Z - C L e v e n t h o u g h s t a t i s t i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s
s e l e c t e d i n b o t h c y c l e s a n d disease i n c i d e n c e ( i n S S 1 9 9 7 )
w e r e n o t f o u n d a m o n g a l l treatments; yet, C - Z - C L i m p r o v e d
and severity ( i n SS 1998) was recorded every w e e k . Late
t h e y i e l d o f t h e test c u l t i v a r b y a b o u t 1 6 % ( T a b l e 2 ) .
l e a f s p o t a n d r u s t w e r e s c o r e d w i t h a seven-classes
In SS 1998, C - Z - C L was also the best late leaf spot c o n t r o l
p i c t o r i c a l scale of s e v e r i t y (1 = 0 - 0 . 5 % , 2 = 0 . 5 - 3 % , 3 = 3-
s h o w i n g the l o w e s t A U D P C a n d Y f , s i m i l a r t o the p r e v i o u s
7 % , 4 = 7 - 1 5 % , 5 = 1 5 - 3 3 % , 6 = 3 3 - 7 0 % , and 7 = 7 0 - 1 0 0 %
season. H o w e v e r , t h e best rust c o n t r o l w a s a c h i e v e d w i t h
l e a f area d a m a g e ) . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l v a r i -
C L - C u - Z ( T a b l e 1). R e g a r d l e s s o f t h e l a c k o f s t a t i s t i c a l
ables ( e p i d e m i c rate r , A U D P C , a n d Y f ) , d a m a g e d pods,
s i g n i f i c a n c e , d r y mass w a s h i g h e s t i n C - Z - C L w h e r e a s
d r y mass, a n d p o d y i e l d w e r e also r e c o r d e d .
p o d yield was highest in C L - C u - Z treatment. H o w e v e r ,
I n S S 1997 a n d S S 1 9 9 8 , onset o f late l e a f spot a n d r u s t
e p i d e m i c o c c u r r e d at 92 a n d 100 days after s o w i n g , respec-
b o t h t r e a t m e n t s i m p r o v e d t h e y i e l d test c u l t i v a r b y a b o u t
4 5 % (Table 2).
t i v e l y . T h e average e p i d e m i c d u r a t i o n was 3 5 days f o r b o t h
T h e results suggest the u s e f u l n e s s o f c a r b e n d a z i m , a
diseases. In SS 1 9 9 7 , a l l 20 late l e a f spot e p i d e m i c s (r 2 =
systemic f u n g i c i d e , at the b e g i n n i n g of the e p i d e m i c
0 . 8 9 - 0 . 9 7 ) a n d 1 9 o u t o f 2 0 o f r u s t ( r 2 > 0 . 8 - 0 . 9 ) w e r e best
suppressing the initial i n o c u l u m and latent infections
described by the G o m p e r t z m o d e l . In SS 1998, all 20 epidemics
f o l l o w e d b y p r o t e c t i v e f u n g i c i d e s . T h i s s c h e m e appears
o f late l e a f spot ( r 2 = 0 . 8 8 - 0 . 9 9 ) a n d 1 1 o u t o f 2 0 e p i d e m i c s
t o w o r k better f o r late l e a f spot. A d d i t i o n a l s t u d i e s are
o f r u s t ( r 2 = 0 . 8 9 - 0 . 9 9 ) w e r e best d e s c r i b e d b y t h e m o n o -
needed to determine the early-season effect of the e n v i -
m o l e c u l a r m o d e l . B e c a u s e m o r e t h a n one m o d e l f i t t e d t h e
r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s o n t h e onset a n d o n t h e disease
e p i d e m i c data a n d the n e e d o f a c o r r e c t i o n f o r m a x i m u m
progress rate of the e p i d e m i c s to i m p r o v e the c u r r e n t disease
disease intensity, epidemic rates were not suitable to c o m p a r e
management.
treatments ( C a m p b e l l and M a d d e n 1990).
I n S S 1 9 9 7 , t h e best late l e a f spot a n d r u s t c o n t r o l w a s
A c k n o w l e d g m e n t . T h e authors are grateful to the F u n d a c i o n
o b t a i n e d w i t h t h e C - Z - C L t r e a t m e n t r e s u l t i n g i n the l o w e s t
P r o d u c e d e G u e r r e r o , A . C . f o r the f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t .
T a b l e 1 . E f f e c t o f fungicide t r e a t m e n t s o n p a r a m e t e r s o f
T a b l e 2. Effect of fungicide treatments on d a m a g e , d r y
t h e c u r v e of progress of late leaf spot a n d rust in g r o u n d -
mass, a n d pod yield of g r o u n d n u t c u l t i v a r R i o Balsas
n u t c u l t i v a r R i o Balsas d u r i n g s p r i n g - s u m m e r ( S S )
d u r i n g s p r i n g - s u m m e r (SS) 1997 a n d 1998, G u e r r e r o ,
1997 and 1998, G u e r r e r o , Mexico.
Mexico1.
Late leal spot 2
Treatment 1
Rust 2
Yf
AUDPC
C-Z-CL
20.40 a
173.1 a
21.76a
155.7 a
Damaged
AUDPC
Yf
Treatment 2
SS 1997
pods
Dry
Pod
(number
mass
yield
plant -1 )
(g plant -1 )
(t ha -1 )
CL-Cu-Z
25.35 ab
210.4 a
27.79 b
192.5 b
SS 1997
Z-C-CL
26.17 ab
212.8 a
28.15 b
197.0 b
C-Z-CL
4.14a
341.0a
2.801 a
Control
30.42 b
239.3 a
31.14b
218.5 b
CL-Cu-Z
3.05 a
335.4 a
2.575 a
Z-C-CL
4.48 a
307.2 a
2.411 a
Control
4.78 a
278.8 a
2.406 a
SS 1998
C-Z-CL
6.26 a
74.62 a
5.84 b
50.39 a
CL-Cu-Z
8.09 a
98.27 a
4.01a
31.36a
Z-C-CL
7.17a
84.54 a
5.96 b
48.20 a
SS 1998
Control
32.30 b
288.54 b
6.43 b
76.12 b
C-Z-CL
3.84 a
668.3 a
3.023 ab
CL-Cu-Z
2.42 a
643.3 a
3.123 a
Z-C-CL
4.56 a
487.4 ab
2.275 bc
Control
6.12 a
366.2 b
1. C - Z - C L
=
carbendazim-zineb-chlorothalonil;
chlorothalonil-copper
oxychloride-zineb;
and
CL-Cu-Z =
Z-C-CL
=
zineb-carbendazim-chlorothalonil.
2.
Yf
i s t h e f i n a l disease i n c i d e n c e ( % ) f o r S S
1997
and final
d i s e a s e s e v e r i t y ( % ) f o r S S 1 9 9 8 ; A U D P C = A r e a u n d e r disease
progress
curve
(proportion-day).
of
means
r a n g e test (P = 0 . 0 5 ) .
by
Student-Newman-Keuls
Multiple
comparison
of means
by
2.127c
Duncan's
test
(P
-
0.05).
F i g u r e s w i t h s a m e l e t t e r s are n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t .
F i g u r e s w i t h same letters are n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t . M u l t i p l e
comparison
1.
multiple
2.
C-Z-CL = carbendazim-zineb-chlorothalonil;
chlorothalonil-copper
oxychloride-zineb;
and
CL-Cu-Z =
Z-C-CL
=
zineb-carbendazim-chlorothalonil.
I A N 20, 2000
41
References
C a m p b e l l , C . , and M a d d e n , L . V . 1990. I n t r o d u c t i o n t o
p l a n t disease e p i d e m i o l o g y . N e w Y o r k , U S A : W i l e y
Interscience. 532 pp.
J o a q u i n T . , I . C . , and A y a l a L . , O . 1996. R i o Balsas y
H u i t z u c o - 9 3 , n u e v a s variedades d e cacahuate para
P u e b l a , M o r e l o s y G u e r r e r o . F o l l e t o para p r o d u c t o r e s N o .
6. M e x i c o : S A G A R . 15 pp.
M a r t i n e z L , , A . G . , and D i a z , B . V . 1985. C u a n t i f i c a c i o n d e
l o s daflos causados p o r enfermedades en cacahuate de
t e m p o r a l e n M o r e l o s , P / V 1985. M e x i c o : S A G A R . 1 2 p p .
Changing Scenario of G r o u n d n u t
Diseases in A n d h r a Pradesh, K a r n a t a k a ,
and T a m i l N a d u States of I n d i a
S Pande and J Narayana Rao (International Crops
Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics ( I C R I S A T ) ,
Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India)
T h e states o f A n d h r a Pradesh, K a r n a t a k a , a n d T a m i l N a d u
are a m o n g t h e largest p r o d u c e r s o f g r o u n d n u t ( A r a c h i s
hypogaea) in I n d i a . G r o u n d n u t is an i m p o r t a n t f o o d , fodder
a n d cash c r o p f o r s m a l l - h o l d e r f a r m e r s i n these states.
H o w e v e r , the yields are v e r y l o w , up to 0.9 tha - 1 ( G o v e r n m e n t
o f I n d i a 1 9 9 5 ) . A m o n g several b i o t i c a n d a b i o t i c c o n straints o f g r o u n d n u t p r o d u c t i o n , diseases are the m a j o r
cause f o r p o o r y i e l d s i n these states. I n f o r m a l s u r v e y s
a n d casual o b s e r v a t i o n s o f researchers a n d f a r m e r s h a v e
i n d i c a t e d a n i n c r e a s e d i n c i d e n c e o f s o i l b o r n e diseases
a n d s h i f t i n t h e appearance o f f o l i a r diseases. T o c o n f i r m
these o b s e r v a t i o n s , s y s t e m a t i c s t r u c t u r e d s u r v e y s o n the
i n c i d e n c e a n d s e v e r i t y o f diseases o f g r o u n d n u t w e r e
c o n d u c t e d i n selected v i l l a g e s i n these three g r o u n d n u t g r o w i n g states d u r i n g 1999 r a i n y season.
A total of 85 farmers' fields in five districts
(Mahbubnagar, K u r n o o l , Anantapur, Cuddapah, and
C h i t t o o r ) i n A n d h r a Pradesh, 4 4 f i e l d s i n t w o d i s t r i c t s
( K o l a r and R a i c h u r ) in Karnataka, and 10 fields in one
d i s t r i c t ( D h a r m a p u r i ) i n T a m i l N a d u w e r e selected f o r
these s u r v e y s . E a c h f i e l d w a s v i s i t e d t h r i c e d u r i n g t h e
1999 c r o p season. T h e c r o p g r o w t h stages a t t h e t i m e o f
survey were: (1) seedling, (2) flowering and p o d format i o n , a n d ( 3 ) p h y s i o l o g i c a l m a t u r i t y . D a t a o n diseases
were recorded on a questionnaire schedule f o r m . S o i l b o r n e diseases s u c h a s c o l l a r r o t a n d stem r o t , a n d a v i r a l
42 I A N 20, 2000
disease c a l l e d b u d n e c r o s i s disease ( B N D ) w e r e r e c o r d e d
as n u m b e r of plants dead a n d c a l c u l a t e d as the percentage
o f k i l l e d p l a n t s . T h e f o l i a r diseases, e a r l y l e a f s p o t ( E L S ) ,
late l e a f spot ( L L S ) , a n d rust w e r e s c o r e d o n a 1-9 r a t i n g
scale w h e r e 1 = no disease a n d 9 = m a x i m u m disease
( S u b r a h m a n y a m et a l . 1995).
M a j o r i t y o f t h e f a r m e r s g r e w g r o u n d n u t a s a sole c r o p
in these states. A f e w f a r m e r s i n t e r c r o p p e d g r o u n d n u t
w i t h p i g e o n p e a (Cajanus c a j a n ) , p e a r l m i l l e t (Pennisetum
glaucum), c o w p e a (Vigna unguiculata), or l a b l a b bean
( L a b l a b purpureus). These c r o p s w e r e s o w n after e v e r y
5 - 2 0 r o w s o f g r o u n d n u t . D u r i n g t h e 1999 r a i n y season,
s o w i n g s w e r e d e l a y e d i n m o s t o f t h e v i l l a g e s because o f
late a r r i v a l o f r a i n s . G e n e r a l l y g r o u n d n u t c r o p s u f f e r e d
f r o m d r o u g h t f r o m s e e d l i n g t o p o d f o r m a t i o n stage. T h e
diseases o b s e r v e d d u r i n g o u r s u r v e y s w e r e c o l l a r r o t ,
stem r o t , E L S , L L S , rust, a n d B N D i n d i f f e r e n t d i s t r i c t s o f
these states. T h e i n c i d e n c e a n d s e v e r i t y o f these diseases
is f u r t h e r discussed.
C o l l a r r o t . C o l l a r r o t caused b y t h e s o i l b o r n e f u n g u s
Aspergillus niger w a s o b s e r v e d in a l l t h e f i e l d s s u r v e y e d .
T h e m e a n i n c i d e n c e w a s u p t o 1 0 % i n the s e e d l i n g stages
a n d u p t o 6 % a t m a t u r i t y stage o f the c r o p . M o r e t h a n 1 0 %
c o l l a r r o t w a s o b s e r v e d i n the d i s t r i c t s o f K o l a r a n d
R a i c h u r i n K a r n a t a k a a n d K u r n o o l i n A n d h r a Pradesh
(Tablel).
S t e m r o t . Stem r o t caused by Sclerotium rolfsii was i n v a r i a b l y present i n a l l f i e l d s , i r r e s p e c t i v e o f the c u l t i v a r a n d
i n t e r c r o p p i n g f o l l o w e d b y the f a r m e r s . I t w a s f o u n d t o b e
a p o t e n t i a l l y i m p o r t a n t disease o f g r o u n d n u t . T h e m e a n
incidence was l o w ( u p t o 4 % ) i n the seedling stage, moderate
to high (up to 16%) d u r i n g f l o w e r i n g and p o d formation
stage, a n d v e r y h i g h ( 2 1 % ) a t m a t u r i t y stage o f the c r o p .
T h e h i g h e s t disease i n c i d e n c e ( 2 9 % ) w a s o b s e r v e d i n
Raichur district and lowest ( 1 0 % ) in Chittoor district
(Tablel).
B u d necrosis disease. B u d n e c r o s i s disease caused b y
p e a n u t b u d necrosis v i r u s ( P B N V ) t r a n s m i t t e d b y t h r i p s
was observed in all the farmers' fields surveyed. The disease i n c i d e n c e w a s l o w ( u p t o 5 % ) i n s e e d l i n g stage a n d
reached m a x i m u m ( u p t o 19%) a t m a t u r i t y . I t was 2 5 % i n
C h i t t o o r a n d C u d d a p a h d i s t r i c t s o f A n d h r a Pradesh a n d
2 0 % i n K o l a r d i s t r i c t o f K a r n a t a k a ( T a b l e 1).
E a r l y l e a f s p o t . E a r l y l e a f s p o t caused b y Cercospora
arachidicola, as its n a m e i m p l i e s , appears f i r s t or in e a r l y
g r o w t h stage o f t h e c r o p a m o n g t h e f o l i a r diseases. T h e
mean E L S severity was l o w (up to 3 rating) in the seedling
T a b l e 1 . T h e scenario o f soilborne diseases a t seedling, f l o w e r i n g a n d p o d - f i l l i n g , a n d n e a r - m a t u r i t y stages o f g r o u n d n u t
i n f a r m e r s ' fields d u r i n g 1 9 9 9 r a i n y season surveys i n A n d h r a P r a d e s h , K a r n a t a k a , a n d T a m i l N a d u states o f I n d i a .
Disease incidence 1 (range %)
No. of
CR
fields
District
observed
SS
BND
SR
FP
NM
SS
FP
NM
SS
FP
NM
A n d h r a Pradesh
Mahbubnagar
12
3-9
5-9
5-6
0-4
1-10
5-18
0-5
1-6
4-16
Kurnool
16
3-10
4-7
4-5
2-9
4-16
3-27
1-5
3-9
6-15
Anantapur
21
2-8
2-5
2-6
0-2
2-18
2-15
0-4
2-8
3-18
Cuddapah
16
3-8
4-9
4-5
0-2
3-18
3-25
0-4
6-9
10-25
Chittoor
20
2-9
3-9
3-4
1-4
2-8
2-10
1-7
3-15
4-25
Karnataka
Raichur
18
2-12
3-8
3-6
0-4
2-25
2-29
0-9
7-12
11-19
Kolar
26
2-14
2-8
2-6
0-3
2-16
3-23
0-5
3-10
5-20
2-9
2-8
2-8
0-3
2-14
3-24
0-4
4-12
6-19
2-10
3-8
3-6
0-4
2-16
3-21
0-5
4-10
6-19
Tamil Nadu
Dharmapuri
10
Mean
1.
C R = C o l l a r r o t ; S R = S t e m r o t ; B N D = B u d necrosis disease; S S = Seedling stage; F P = F l o w e r i n g a n d p o d - f i l l i n g stage; N M = N e a r maturity
stage.
stage a n d m o d e r a t e ( u p t o 5 r a t i n g ) i n t h e f l o w e r i n g a n d
L L S , a n d r u s t f o r i n f e c t i o n a n d s p r e a d these diseases t o
p o d f o r m a t i o n stage i n a l l t h e d i s t r i c t s ( T a b l e 2 ) . I t w a s
r a i n y season c r o p . I n g e n e r a l t h e m e a n s e v e r i t y o f r u s t i n
f o u n d a s s o c i a t e d w i t h d e f o l i a t i o n a t e a r l y g r o w t h stages
other surveyed fields was moderate (up to 5 rating) d u r i n g
o f t h e c r o p a n d w a s n o t o b s e r v e d a t later stages o f c r o p
t h e f l o w e r i n g a n d p o d f o r m a t i o n stage a n d h i g h ( u p t o 8
g r o w t h . W i t h the onset o f favorable weather f o r f o l i a r
r a t i n g ) t o w a r d s m a t u r i t y ( T a b l e 2 ) . T h e highest rust s e v e r i t y
diseases, E L S w a s m a s k e d b y L L S .
(9 rating) was recorded in the districts of A n a n t a p u r ,
Raichur, and Dharmapuri (Table 2).
L a t e l e a f spot c a u s e d b y Phaeoisariopsis
A m o n g s o i l b o r n e diseases, c o l l a r r o t a p p e a r e d t o b e
personata w a s c o m m o n l y o b s e r v e d i n a l l t h e f a r m e r s '
t h e p r e d o m i n a n t s e e d l i n g disease a n d c a u s e d s e e d l i n g
f i e l d s a t a l l t h e g r o w t h stages i n a l l t h e t h r e e states. T h e
m o r t a l i t y w h i c h resulted in poor plant stand. T h o u g h
L a t e leaf spot.
disease progressed s l o w l y i n t h e b e g i n n i n g and its e p i d e m i c
s t e m r o t o c c u r r e d i n t h e s e e d l i n g stage, its i n c i d e n c e i n -
reached up to 8 rating at maturity in most of the farmers'
creased as the c r o p g r e w older and reached m a x i m u m at
f i e l d s . Its m e a n s e v e r i t i e s w e r e a r o u n d 2 r a t i n g d u r i n g
m a t u r i t y . It caused death of the plants as w e l l as r o t t i n g of
s e e d l i n g stage, u p t o 4 r a t i n g i n t h e f l o w e r i n g a n d p o d
pods. C o l l a r r o t and stem r o t diseases w e r e earlier c o n s i d e r e d
f i l l i n g stage, a n d h i g h ( u p t o 7 ) i n n e a r - m a t u r i t y g r o w t h
less i m p o r t a n t , b u t w e r e n o w f o u n d t o b e p o t e n t i a l c o n -
stage ( T a b l e 2 ) .
s t r a i n t s t o g r o u n d n u t p r o d u c t i o n . D u r i n g these s u r v e y s ,
t h e t w o diseases w e r e f o u n d t o cause s u b s t a n t i a l y i e l d
observed
losses. F a r m e r s c o n s i d e r e d stem r o t as a disease of g r o w i n g
in a l l the districts surveyed. Disease severity was l o w (2
c o n c e r n o f g r o u n d n u t . A m o n g t h e f o l i a r diseases, E L S
t o 3 r a t i n g ) i n t h e s e e d l i n g stage e x c e p t i n R a i c h u r a n d
a p p e a r e d i n t h e e a r l y g r o w t h stage t o f l o w e r i n g a n d p o d
R u s t . Rust
caused
by
Puccinia arachidis
was
M a h b u b n a g a r districts w h e r e the severity was rated 4 to
f o r m a t i o n stage o f t h e c r o p a n d l a t e r m a s k e d b y L L S a n d
5 . T h e h i g h e r s e v e r i t y o f r u s t i n t h e s e e d l i n g stage i n
r u s t . H e n c e i t w a s n o t o b s e r v e d a t l a t e r stages. L L S a n d
these t w o d i s t r i c t s w a s d u e t o e a r l y i n f e c t i o n f r o m a n i r r i -
rust generally appeared d u r i n g the f l o w e r i n g and p o d
gated s u m m e r ( M a r c h - A p r i l s o w n ) crop. It appeared that
f o r m a t i o n stage a n d c o n t i n u e d t o increase t i l l m a t u r i t y
the s u m m e r crop acted as an i n o c u l u m reservoir of E L S ,
c a u s i n g severe d e f o l i a t i o n ( u p t o 9 0 % ) a n d w i t h e r i n g o f
I A N 20, 2000
43
T a b l e 2 . T h e scenario o f f o l i a r diseases a t seedling, f l o w e r i n g a n d p o d - f i l l i n g , a n d n e a r - m a t u r i t y stages o f g r o u n d n u t i n
f a r m e r s ' fields d u r i n g 1 9 9 9 r a i n y season surveys i n A n d h r a P r a d e s h , K a r n a t a k a , a n d T a m i l N a d u states o f I n d i a .
Disease score 1 (range)
No. of
LLS
ELS
fields
observed
SS
FP
Mahbubnagar
12
1-3
2-4
Kurnool
16
1-3
2-4
Anantapur
21
1-2
2-5
Cuddapah
16
1-2
3-4
Chittoor
20
1-3
3-5
Raichur
18
1-3
Kolar
26
1-3
1-2
2-4
1-2
2-4
1-3
2-5
1-2
2-4
District
SS
Rust
FP
NM
FP
1-2
3-4
4-8
2-4
3-7
5-8
1-2
2-3
4-7
2-3
2-6
4-7
1-3
1-3
4-7
1-3
1-4
4-9
1-2
2-3
5-7
1-2
2-3
5-7
1-2
1-3
2-6
1-3
1-4
2-7
3-6
1-2
3-6
5-7
2-5
5-8
7-9
2-4
1-3
1-5
4-8
1-2
1-5
4-8
6-8
1-2
2-4
6-9
4-7
1-3
2-5
5-8
SS
NM
A n d h r a Pradesh
Karnataka
Tamil Nadu
Dharmapuri
10
Mean
1.
R a t i n g on 1-9 scale w h e r e 1 = no disease, a n d 9 = m a x i m u m disease.
E L S = E a r l y l e a f s p o t ; L L S = Late l e a f spot; SS = S e e d l i n g stage; FP = F l o w e r i n g and p o d - f i l l i n g stage; NM = N e a r - m a t u r i t y stage.
foliage in the susceptible g r o u n d n u t cultivars c o m m o n l y
Evaluation of W i l d Arachis G e r m p l a s m
g r o w n by farmers. The intercropping pattern currently
Accessions for In V i t r o Seed
f o l l o w e d b y t h e f a r m e r s , i r r e s p e c t i v e o f t h e c r o p species
i n v o l v e d , d i d not have any influence on the incidence and
Colonization and Aflatoxin Production
s e v e r i t y o f diseases o f g r o u n d n u t . H o w e v e r , g r o u n d n u t
by Aspergillus
flavus
r o w s a d j a c e n t t o t h e i n t e r c r o p p e d r o w h a d m o r e disease
than the g r o u n d n u t c r o p farthest f r o m the intercropped
R P T h a k u r , V P Rao, S V Reddy, and M Ferguson
row.
(International Crops Research Institute f o r the S e m i - A r i d
Tropics ( I C R I S A T ) , Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh,
India)
References
A h i g h l e v e l o f stable resistance t o a f l a t o x i n c o n t a m i n a t i o n
G o v e r n m e n t o f I n d i a . 1995. A r e a a n d p r o d u c t i o n o f p r i n c i -
( i n f e c t i o n b y Aspergillus flavus a n d p r o d u c t i o n o f a f l a t o x i n )
pal crops in India, 1994-95. N e w D e l h i , India: Directorate
has n o t b e e n i d e n t i f i e d i n c u l t i v a t e d g r o u n d n u t ( A r a c h i s
o f E c o n o m i c s a n d Statistics, G o v e r n m e n t o f India. 327 p p .
hypogaea),
although
s e v e r a l g e n o t y p e s are r e p o r t e d t o
possess r e s i s t a n c e t o seed c o l o n i z a t i o n , seed i n v a s i o n
S u b r a h m a n y a m , P., M c D o n a l d , D . , W a l i y a r , F., R e d d y ,
and/or aflatoxin production ( M e h a n 1989, W a l i y a r et al.
L.J., Gibbons, R.W., Ramanatha Rao, V., Singh, A . K . ,
1 9 9 4 , U p a d h y a y a e t a l . 1 9 9 7 ) . I C R I S A T has a c o l l e c t i o n o f
P a n d e , S . , R e d d y , P . M . , and Subba R a o , P.V. 1995. Screening
4 1 3 accessions o f w i l d Arachis s p p , t h e m a j o r i t y o f w h i c h ,
m e t h o d s a n d s o u r c e s o f r e s i s t a n c e t o r u s t a n d late l e a f
have not been evaluated f o r resistance to a f l a t o x i n c o n -
spot
t a m i n a t i o n . P r e v i o u s l y 1 6 species ( 9 b e l o n g i n g u n i f o r m l y
of
groundnut.
Information
Bulletin
no.
47.
Patancheru 502 3 2 4 , A n d h r a Pradesh, India: International
to
C r o p s Research Institute f o r the S e m i - A r i d Tropics. 24 p p .
and
44
I A N 20, 2000
section
one
Arachis,
each
to
3
to
Erectoides,
Extranervosae
and
2
to
Rhizomatosae,
Triseminatae)
were
T a b l e 1. In v i t r o seed c o l o n i z a t i o n severity by Aspergillus flavus a n d a f l a t o x i n p r o d u c t i o n in 35 wild Arachis accessions.
Accession no.
Section
Arachis
species
Colonization
Aflatoxin
severity 1
production 2
I C G 144
Arachis
A.
4.0
H
I C G 190
Arachis
A. hoehnei
3.5
M
I C G 8125
Arachis
A.
stenosperma
4.0
H
I C G 8137
Arachis
A.
stenosperma
4.0
H
I C G 8139
Arachis
A.
duranensis
3.5
M
I C G 8193
Arachis
A.
valida
2.5
M
I C G 8195
Arachis
A.
duranensis
2.5
L
I C G 8197
Arachis
A.
monticola
3.5
H
I C G 8201
Arachis
A.
duranensis
2.5
H
I C G 8206
Arachis
A.
ipaensis
4.0
H
I C G 8210
Arachis
A.
batizocoi
4.0
H
I C G 8959
Arachis
A.
I C G 8960
Arachis
A.
I C G 11551
Arachis
I C G 13173
Arachis
I C G 14861
villosa
2.5
H
2.0
H
A. benensis
1.5
M
A.
stenosperma
3.0
M
Arachis
A.
kuhlmannii
3.0
H
I C G 14855
Caulorhizae
A. pintoi
2.0
M
I C G 8130
Erectoides
A.
2.0
M
I C G 8192
Erectoides
A.
oteroi
2.0
L
I C G 8215
Erectoides
A.
stenophylla
3.5
H
I C G 8973
Erectoides
A.
4.0
H
I C G 13262
Erectoides
A.
major
3.5
M
I C G 13212
Heteranthae
A.
pusilla
1.0
N
I C G 14897
Heteranthae
A.
pusilla
4.0
H
I C G 8127
Procumbentes
A.
appressipila
2.0
M
I C G 8128
Procumbentes
A.
appressipila
2.5
H
I C G 8129
Procumbentes
A.
appressipila
2.5
M
H
kempff-mercadoi
magna
paraguariensis
paraguariensis
I C G 8191
Procumbentes
A.
kretschmeri
3.0
I C G 8904
Procumbentes
A.
rigonii
2.0
H
I C G 8945
Procumbentes
A.
appressipila
3.5
H
I C G 11557
Procumbentes
A.
matiensis
1.5
M
I C G 11560
Procumbentes
A.
chiquitana
1.0
N
I C G 8131
Triseminatae
A.
triseminata
1.0
N
I C G 13261
Triseminatae
A.
triseminata
1.5
L
I C G 14875
Triseminatae
A.
triseminata
1.0
L
J 11 (control)
Arachis
A.
hypogaea
4.0
H
JL 24 (control)
Arachis
A.
hypogaea
4.0
H
2.74
H
Mean
SEm
±0.64
1 . Aspergillus
flavus
c o l o n i z a t i o n severity on
1-4 r a t i n g scale (see text).
M e a n o f 2 r e p l i c a t i o n s , w i t h 3 0 seeds i n each r e p l i c a t i o n .
2.
Aflatoxin estimation was done using
5 g seed per r e p l i c a t i o n .
H - H i g h ( > 5 0 0 0 µg k g - 1 s e e d ) ; M = M o d e r a t e ( 1 0 0 1 - 5 0 0 0 µg kg-1 s e e d ) ; L = L o w ( 1 0 0 - 1 0 0 0 µg k g - 1 s e e d ) ; a n d N = N e g l i g i b l e
(<100
µkg-1
seed).
I A N 20, 2000
45
e v a l u a t e d a n d f o u n d t o s u p p o r t the p r o d u c t i o n o f a f l a t o x i n
( 3 4 - 1 1 0 µg g - 1 seed) ( M e h a n 1 9 8 9 ) .
W e r e p o r t the e v a l u a t i o n o f 3 5 g e r m p l a s m accessions
o f w i l d Arachis b e l o n g i n g t o 2 4 species i n six sections f o r
i n v i t r o seed c o l o n i z a t i o n b y a r t i f i c i a l i n o c u l a t i o n w i t h a
r e c e n t l y i d e n t i f i e d h i g h l y aggressive a n d t o x i g e n i c s t r a i n
of A. flavus (isolate Af 11 -4) and for aflatoxin p r o d u c t i o n
( T a b l e 1). S i x t y seeds ( w e i g h i n g 4 - 1 0 g d e p e n d i n g o n
seed size) from each accession w e r e surface s t e r i l i z e d w i t h
0 . 1 % aqueous s o l u t i o n o f m e r c u r i c c h l o r i d e f o r 2 m i n a n d
w a s h e d i n t w o changes o f d i s t i l l e d s t e r i l i z e d w a t e r . Seeds
w e r e u n i f o r m l y w o u n d e d b y p r i c k i n g w i t h a sterile needle,
to a l l o w i n v a s i o n by A. flavus spores. Seeds w e r e p l a c e d
in a sterilized petri dish (9 cm diameter) and spray i n o c u l a t e d
w i t h A. flavus s p o r e s u s p e n s i o n (1 x 10 6 spores m L - 1 )
u s i n g a n a t o m i z e r . T h e p e t r i dishes w e r e s h a k e n v i g o r o u s l y t o r o l l the seeds a l l o w i n g u n i f o r m d i s t r i b u t i o n o f
i n o c u l u m o n the seeds. T h e e x p e r i m e n t w a s c o n d u c t e d i n
t w o r e p l i c a t i o n s w i t h 3 0 seeds p e r r e p l i c a t i o n . T h e p e t r i
dishes w e r e p l a c e d a t h i g h h u m i d i t y ( > 9 5 % R H ) i n semir i g i d plastic boxes, l i n e d w i t h w e t c o t t o n w o o l a n d b l o t t i n g
paper, w i t h closely f i t t i n g lids, and incubated at 2 5 ° C in
the d a r k f o r 10 days.
I n d i v i d u a l seeds w e r e s c o r e d f o r surface c o l o n i z a t i o n
by A. flavus and f o r c o l o n i z a t i o n severity using the f o l l o w i n g
r a t i n g scale: 1 = < 5 % seed surface c o l o n i z e d w i t h scanty
m y c e l i a l g r o w t h a n d no s p o r u l a t i o n ; 2 = 5 - 2 5 % seed surface c o l o n i z e d w i t h g o o d m y c e l i a l g r o w t h a n d scanty
s p o r u l a t i o n ; 3 = 2 6 - 5 0 % seed surface c o l o n i z e d w i t h
g o o d mycelial g r o w t h and g o o d sporulation; and 4 = > 5 0 %
seed surface c o l o n i z e d w i t h h e a v y s p o r u l a t i o n . T h e
seeds w e r e t h e n s p r a y e d w i t h e t h a n o l a n d w a s h e d b e f o r e
using for aflatoxin estimation. An indirect competitive
e n z y m e - l i n k e d i m m u n o s o r b e n t assay ( E L I S A ) m e t h o d
w a s used ( D e v i e t a l . 1 9 9 9 ) .
L a r g e v a r i a t i o n o c c u r r e d b o t h f o r seed c o l o n i z a t i o n
severity (1 to 4) and aflatoxin production [high (>5000 ug
kg" 1 seed) to n e g l i g i b l e (< 100 µg kg - 1 seed)] a m o n g accessions
b e l o n g i n g to different sections and species (Table 1). Accessions I C G 13212 (A. pusilla,), I C G 11560 (A. chiquitana),
a n d I C G 8 1 3 1 a n d I C G 14875 (A. triseminata) recorded l o w
colonization severity and relatively l o w aflatoxin content
c o m p a r e d w i t h those o f c o n t r o l susceptible c u l t i v a r s J 1 1
a n d J L 2 4 . Resistance o f t h e a b o v e accessions needs t o
be e v a l u a t e d f o r seed i n f e c t i o n by A. flavus.
References
D e v i , K . T . , M a y o , M . A . , R e d d y , K . L . N . , Delfosse, P . ,
Reddy, G., Reddy, S . V . , and Reddy, D . V . R . 1999. Production
46 I A N 20, 2000
a n d characterization o f m o n o c l o n a l antibodies f o r a f l a t o x i n
B 1 . Letters i n A p p l i e d M i c r o b i o l o g y 2 9 : 2 8 4 - 2 8 8 .
M e h a n , V . K . 1989. S c r e e n i n g g r o u n d n u t f o r resistance t o
seed invasion by Aspergillus flavus and aflatoxin p r o d u c t i o n .
Pages 3 2 3 - 3 3 4 i n A f l a t o x i n c o n t a m i n a t i o n o f g r o u n d n u t :
p r o c e e d i n g s o f the I n t e r n a t i o n a l W o r k s h o p , 6 - 9 O c t
1987, I C R I S A T Center, I n d i a ( M c D o n a l d , D . , a n d M e h a n ,
V . K . , eds.). Patancheru 5 0 2 3 2 4 , A n d h r a Pradesh, I n d i a :
I n t e r n a t i o n a l C r o p s Research I n s t i t u t e f o r the S e m i - A r i d
Tropics.
U p a d h y a y a , H . D . , N i g a m , S.N., M e h a n , V . K . , and
L e n n e , J . M . 1997. A f l a t o x i n c o n t a m i n a t i o n o f g r o u n d n u t :
prospects f o r genetic s o l u t i o n t h r o u g h c o n v e n t i o n a l
breeding. Pages 8 1 - 8 5 in A f l a t o x i n c o n t a m i n a t i o n p r o b l e m s
i n g r o u n d n u t i n A s i a : proceedings o f the First A s i a W o r k i n g
G r o u p M e e t i n g , 2 7 - 2 9 M a y 1996, M i n i s t r y o f A g r i c u l t u r e
and Rural Development, Hanoi, Vietnam ( M e h a n , V . K . ,
a n d G o w d a , C . L . L . , eds.). Patancheru 5 0 2 3 2 4 , A n d h r a
Pradesh, I n d i a : I n t e r n a t i o n a l C r o p s Research I n s t i t u t e f o r
the S e m i - A r i d T r o p i c s .
W a l i y a r , F . , B a , A . , H a s s a n , H . , B o n k o u n g o u , S., and
Bosc, J . P . 1994. Sources o f resistance t o Aspergillus
flavus and aflatoxin contamination in groundnut in West
A f r i c a . Plant Disease 7 8 : 7 0 4 - 7 0 8 .
Identification of Elite Short-duration,
Rosette Resistant Lines in W o r l d
G e r m p l a s m Collections
P Subrahmanyam 1 ; P J A van der Merwe 1 , L J Reddy 2 ,
A J Chiyembekeza 1 , F M Kimmins 3 , and R A Naidu 4
( 1 . International Crops Research Institute for the SemiA r i d Tropics (ICRISAT), PO Box 1096, Lilongwe, M a l a w i ;
2. I C R I S A T , Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India;
3. Natural Resources Institute, University of Greenwich,
Chatham, Kent M E 4 4 T B , U K ; 4 . Department o f Plant
Pathology, 2102 M i l l e r Plant Science Building, University
o f Georgia, Athens, G A 30602-7274, U S A )
G r o u n d n u t rosette i s a m a j o r c o n s t r a i n t t o g r o u n d n u t p r o d u c t i o n i n sub-Saharan A f r i c a a n d its o f f s h o r e islands
( S u b r a h m a n y a m e t a l . 1 9 9 1 , 1 9 9 7 , N a i d u e t a l . 1999a). I t i s
caused b y a c o m p l e x o f three agents: g r o u n d n u t rosette
assistor v i r u s ( G R A V ) , g r o u n d n u t rosette v i r u s ( G R V ) ,
a n d satellite R N A o f G R V . T h e disease i s t r a n s m i t t e d b y
a p h i d s ( A p h i s craccivora) i n persistent m a n n e r ( N a i d u e t
a l . 1999a). G r o u n d n u t rosette i s e s t i m a t e d t o cause a n n u a l
y i e l d losses g l o b a l l y w o r t h U S $ 156 m i l l i o n ( I C R I S A T
m i g h t have been due t o m i x t u r e s o r outcrossing. S o w e
1992).
p u r i f i e d t h e m b y c u l l i n g o u t t h e diseased p l a n t s f o r t w o
I n t h e past, s e v e r a l m e d i u m - a n d l o n g - d u r a t i o n rosette
seasons.
r e s i s t a n t g r o u n d n u t v a r i e t i e s , s u c h a s R G 1 , R M P 12, a n d
R M P 9 1 , h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d a n d released f o r g e n e r a l
Morphological and agronomic characters
c u l t i v a t i o n . H o w e v e r , t h e i r a d o p t i o n rate b y f a n n e r s w a s
l o w i n m o s t o f sub-Saharan A f r i c a , characterized b y short
I C G s 1 2 9 8 8 a n d 1 2 9 9 1 b e l o n g t o t h e Spanish b o t a n i c a l
a n d e r r a t i c r a i n f a l l . T h e n e e d f o r s h o r t - d u r a t i o n , rosette
g r o u p w i t h erect g r o w t h h a b i t , s e q u e n t i a l b r a n c h i n g , a n d
resistant v a r i e t i e s has b e e n w e l l r e c o g n i z e d i n the b r e e d i n g
m e d i u m - s i z e d , d a r k g r e e n , e l l i p t i c leaves. O n a v e r a g e , I C G
p r o g r a m s , a n d a t t e m p t s h a v e b e e n m a d e i n t h e past t o
1 2 9 8 8 has 4 . 2 p r i m a r y a n d 2.5 s e c o n d a r y b r a n c h e s a n d
b r e e d s u c h v a r i e t i e s b y c r o s s i n g rosette resistant sources
I C G 1 2 9 9 1 has 4 . 5 p r i m a r y a n d 2 . 6 s e c o n d a r y b r a n c h e s .
w i t h short-duration a g r o n o m i c a l l y superior Spanish varieties.
T h e y mature i n 9 5 - 1 0 5 days after s o w i n g ( D A S ) a t C h i t e d z e
H o w e v e r , success i n c o m b i n i n g s h o r t - d u r a t i o n a n d rosette
[ 1 1 4 9 m asl ( a b o v e sea l e v e l ) ] a n d in 9 0 - 1 0 0 D A S at C h i t a l a
resistance i n g o o d a g r o n o m i c b a c k g r o u n d b y breeding
( 5 5 0 m asl), M a l a w i c o m p a r e d w i t h J L 2 4 w h i c h m a t u r e s i n
has n o t b e e n m e t w i t h d e s i r a b l e success, p r o b a b l y d u e t o
110-120 D A S at Chitedze and 9 0 - 1 0 0 D A S at Chitala.
c o m p l e x n a t u r e o f i n h e r i t a n c e o f these t r a i t s ( R e d d y a n d
I C G s 12988 and 12991 have two-seeded s m a l l pods
S u b r a h m a n y a m 1997). H e n c e , a r i g o r o u s search w a s m a d e
i d e n t i f y s h o r t - d u r a t i o n rosette resistant g e r m p l a s m
w i t h t h i n shells a n d s l i g h t t o m e d i u m r e t i c u l a t i o n . P o d s o f
w i t h g o o d a g r o n o m i c features b y s c r e e n i n g t h e w o r l d
both lines have slight to m e d i u m constriction w i t h no or
to
g e r m p l a s m u s i n g the infector r o w technique ( B o c k and
l i t t l e beak. Seeds are t a n w i t h a 100-seed mass of 3 1 . 5 g f o r
N i g a m 1988, Subrahmanyam et al. 1998). This article describes
I C G 12988 and 30.8 g f o r I C G 12991 a n d have n o fresh seed
the botanical features and performance o f t w o s h o r t - d u r a t i o n ,
dormancy. B o t h varieties have h i g h shelling percentage:
76.5 f o r I C G 12988 and 76.0 for I C G 1 2 9 9 1 . A v e r a g e o i l
rosette resistant elite g e r m p l a s m , I C G 12988 and I C G 1 2 9 9 1 .
content is 4 3 . 6 % in I C G 12988 and 4 3 . 3 % in I C G 1 2 9 9 1 .
A v e r a g e p r o t e i n c o n t e n t i s 2 6 . 7 % i n I C G 12988 a n d 2 7 . 1 %
Origin and development
i n I C G 12991.
I C G s 1 2 9 8 8 a n d 1 2 9 9 1 are g e r m p l a s m lines c o l l e c t e d i n
Disease reaction
f a r m e r ' s f i e l d s i n M a d h y a P r a d e s h , I n d i a i n O c t o b e r 1988
u n d e r t h e c o l l e c t o r n u m b e r s U S 2 2 a n d U S 2 5 , respectively.
They
were
introduced
into
ICRISAT
at
the
T h e r e a c t i o n o f I C G s 12988 a n d 1 2 9 9 1 t o rosette i n t h e
C h i t e d z e A g r i c u l t u r a l Research Station near L i l o n g w e ,
disease n u r s e r y a t C h i t e d z e f o r f o u r seasons i s g i v e n i n
M a l a w i i n 1 9 9 4 f o r e v a l u a t i o n a g a i n s t rosette a n d e a r l y
T a b l e 1 . T h e m e a n disease i n c i d e n c e i n these t r i a l s w a s
leaf
The
6 . 0 % f o r I C G 12988 a n d 4 . 5 % f o r I C G 12991 ( F i g . 1 ) . T h e
which
susceptible control varieties, M a l i m b a and JL 2 4 , s h o w e d
spot
original
(caused
sources
by
Cercospora
had some
arachidicola).
susceptible plants,
T a b l e 1 . R e a c t i o n o f g r o u n d n u t genotypes I C G s 1 2 9 8 8 a n d 1 2 9 9 1 a n d c o n t r o l c u l t i v a r s M a l i m b a a n d J L 2 4 u n d e r h i g h
rosette disease s i t u a t i o n a t C h i t e d z e A g r i c u l t u r a l R e s e a r c h S t a t i o n , M a l a w i d u r i n g 1 9 9 4 - 9 8 .
Disease
Rosette incidence (%)
Genotype
1994/95
1995/96
1996/97
index
1997/98
Mean
(1996)
1.5
I C G 12988
8
5
10
1
6.0
I C G 12991
9
0
6
3
4.5
1.4
M a l i m b a (control)
100
93
92
95.0
2.8
JL 24 (control)
100
95.0
2.8
96
87
97
T r i a l mean
13.6
19.4
29.0
1.65
SE
±4.2
±5.3
±4.6
±0.09
C V (%)
26.7
25.3
5.1
6.0
I A N 20, 2000
47
Figure 1. Field reaction of groundnut genotype I C G 12991
against rosette at Chitedze, M a l a w i .
9 5 % disease i n c i d e n c e . Rosette disease i n d e x ( O l o r u n j u
e t a l . 1991) w a s l o w e r for I C G 12988 ( 1 . 5 ) a n d I C G 12991
( 1 . 4 ) c o m p a r e d t o the susceptible varieties ( 2 . 8 ) .
Reaction to the vector
B o t h I C G 12988 a n d I C G 12991 are resistant t o the v e c t o r
A. craccivora ( N a i d u et a l . 1 9 9 9 b ) . L a b o r a t o r y studies on
a p h i d s u r v i v a l , r e p r o d u c t i o n , a n d feeding behavior s h o w e d
l o w rate o f n y m p h a l d e v e l o p m e n t , r e d u c e d f e c u n d i t y , a n d
smaller-sized aphids on I C G 12991 c o m p a r e d to susceptible
g e n o t y p e s J L 2 4 a n d C G 7 ( M i n j a e t a l . 1999). Resistance
t o a p h i d s increases w i t h age o f the plants ( N a i d u e t a l .
1 9 9 9 b ) . F i e l d resistance o f I C G 12988 a n d I C G 12991 t o
rosette is a t t r i b u t e d to resistance to v e c t o r aphids.
Yield performance
B o t h I C G s 12988 a n d 12991 w e r e i d e n t i f i e d as short-durat i o n , h i g h - y i e l d i n g lines w i t h resistance t o rosette d u r i n g
the 1994/95 c r o p season a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y i n 1 9 9 5 / 9 6 ,
1996/97, and 1997/98 at Chitedze, M a l a w i ( S u b r a h m a n y a m
e t a l . 1998).
T h e magnitude of differences in p o d y i e l d between rosette resistant g e r m p l a s m ( I C G s 12988 a n d 1 2 9 9 1 ) a n d
s u s c e p t i b l e c u l t i v a r s ( M a l i m b a a n d J L 2 4 ) was v e r y h i g h
u n d e r h i g h disease pressure ( T a b l e 2 ) . I n y i e l d trials u n d e r
h i g h disease pressure a t C h i t e d z e , M a l a w i , d u r i n g the
1 9 9 6 / 9 7 a n d 1 9 9 7 / 9 8 c r o p seasons, I C G 12988 a n d I C G
12991 gave a y i e l d advantage of over 1020%. Under l o w
disease pressure in the same years, I C G 12988 gave a y i e l d
advantage o f 6 . 8 % a n d I C G 12991 o v e r 14.7%. U n d e r h i g h
48 I A N 20, 2000
T a b l e 3 . P e r f o r m a n c e o f g r o u n d n u t genotypes I C G s 12988 a n d 12991 a n d c o n t r o l c u l t i v a r J L 2 4 i n o n - f a r m t r i a l s a t
t h r e e locations i n K a r o n g a A g r i c u l t u r a l D e v e l o p m e n t D i v i s i o n , M a l a w i d u r i n g the off-season, 1997.
Pod y i e l d (t ha -1 )
Shelling (%)
lponga
Katininda 1
Katininda 2
I C G 12988
3.2
4.2
5.7
4.37
78
75
74
I C G 12991
4.1
3.6
3.7
3.80
76
69
76
73.7
JL 24 (control)
2.7
4.0
5.4
4.03
70
66
72
69.3
Genotype
2.7
3.6
4.8
±0.29
±0.37
±0.70
22
23
30
T r i a l mean
SE
C V (%)
Mean
Katininda 1
lponga
Katininda 2
66
63
66
±1.0
±2.4
±2.3
7.0
8.0
7.0
Mean
75.7
disease p r e s s u r e , e v e n the s h e l l i n g p e r c e n t a g e o f the
V o l 1. M a i n report. Patancheru 502 324, A n d h r a Pradesh,
susceptible cultivars was l o w compared to that of I C G s
India: I C R I S A T . 88 pp.
12988 and 1 2 9 9 1 .
I n o n - f a r m t r i a l s c o n d u c t e d d u r i n g the 1997 o f f - s e a s o n
at three locations in K a r o n g a , M a l a w i , the mean p o d
y i e l d s o f I C G s 12988 and 12991 w e r e s i m i l a r t o that o f J L 2 4
u n d e r n o disease s i t u a t i o n . H o w e v e r , b o t h I C G s 1 2 9 8 8
and 12991 had better shelling percentage (Table 3).
M i n j a , E . M . , v a n d e r M e r w e , P.J.A., K i m m i n s , F . M . , and
S u b r a h m a n y a m , P. 1999. Screening g r o u n d n u t b r e e d i n g
lines
f o r resistance
Naidu,
In farmer-participatory y i e l d trials conducted at 45
to
aphids.
I n t e r n a t i o n a l Arachis N e w s l e t t e r
R.A.,
Kimmins,
Aphis
craccixora
Koch.
19:21-23.
F.M.,
Deom,
CM.,
S u b r a h m a n y a m , P., C h i y e m b e k e z a , A . J . , a n d v a n d e r
locations i n different a g r o e c o l o g i c a l zones o f M a l a w i
M e r w e , P . J . A . 1999a. G r o u n d n u t r o s e t t e : a v i r u s disease
d u r i n g t h e 1 9 9 8 / 9 9 g r o w i n g season, I C G 1 2 9 8 8 a n d I C G
affecting groundnut production in sub-Saharan A f r i c a .
12991 gave an average y i e l d advantage of over 6% and
Plant Disease 8 3 : 7 0 0 - 7 0 9 .
7 % , r e s p e c t i v e l y . Rosette i n c i d e n c e d u r i n g the season
Naidu,
was negligible ( < 1 % ) at all locations.
R.A.,
Kimmins,
F.M.,
Robinson,
D.J.,
B o t h I C G 1 2 9 8 8 a n d I C G 12991 are h i g h y i e l d i n g a n d
S u b r a h m a n y a m , P., and v a n d e r M e r w e , P . J . A . 1 9 9 9 b .
have an excellent potential for cultivation in production
Plant age and i n o c u l u m dose dependent resistance in peanut
systems characterized by short r a i n y seasons a n d r e c u r r e n t
cultivars to g r o u n d n u t rosette virus disease and a p h i d v e c t o r .
Phytopathology 89:S 55. (Abstract.)
rosette e p i d e m i c s in sub-Saharan A f r i c a .
O l o r u n j u , P.E., K u h n , C . W . , Demski, J . W . , M i s a r i , S . M . ,
and A n s a , O . A . 1 9 9 1 . Disease r e a c t i o n a n d y i e l d p e r f o r -
Seed availability
m a n c e o f peanut genotypes g r o w n u n d e r g r o u n d n u t rosette
The
Genetic
Resources
and
Enhancement
Program,
I C R 1 S A T , P O B o x 1096, L i l o n g w e , M a l a w i , maintains the
breeder seed o f I C G 12988 a n d I C G 1 2 9 9 1 . L i m i t e d q u a n t i ties o f seed are m a d e a v a i l a b l e o n request.
and rosette-free f i e l d environments. Plant Disease 7 5 :
1269-1273.
R e d d y , L . J . , and S u b r a h m a n y a m , P . 1997. B r e e d i n g f o r
rosette-resistant g r o u n d n u t varieties.
Pages
15-19
in
G r o u n d n u t v i r u s diseases i n A f r i c a : s u m m a r y a n d r e c o m mendations o f the S i x t h
References
M e e t i n g of the International
W o r k i n g G r o u p , 1 8 - 1 9 M a r 1996, A g r i c u l t u r a l Research
B o c k , K . R . , and N i g a m , S . N .
1988. M e t h o d o l o g y o f
C o u n c i l , Plant Protection Research Institute, Pretoria,
g r o u n d n u t r o s e t t e s c r e e n i n g a n d v e c t o r - e c o l o g y studies
S o u t h A f r i c a ( R e d d y , D . V . R . , D e l f o s s e , P., L e n n e , J . M . ,
in
a n d S u b r a h m a n y a m , P., eds.). Patancheru 5 0 2 3 2 4 , A n d h r a
Malawi.
Pages
6-10
in Coordinated
research
on
g r o u n d n u t r o s e t t e v i r u s disease. P a t a n c h e r u 5 0 2 3 2 4 ,
Pradesh, India: International C r o p s Research Institute f o r
A n d h r a Pradesh, India:
the S e m i - A r i d T r o p i c s ; a n d 1000 Brussels, B e l g i u m : B e l g i a n
International Crops Research
Institute f o r the S e m i - A r i d Tropics.
Administration for Development Cooperation.
I C R I S A T ( I n t e r n a t i o n a l C r o p s Research Institute f o r the
S u b r a h m a n y a m , P., G r e e n b e r g , D . C . , S a v a r y , S., and
S e m i - A r i d Tropics). 1992. T h e m e d i u m term plan, 1 9 9 4 - 1 9 9 8 .
Bosc, J . P . 1 9 9 1 . Diseases o f g r o u n d n u t i n W e s t A f r i c a
I A N 20, 2000
49
a n d t h e i r m a n a g e m e n t : research p r i o r i t i e s a n d strategies.
1974). A p p l i c a t i o n of fungicides to soil and plants can
T r o p i c a l Pest M a n a g e m e n t 3 7 : 2 5 9 - 2 6 9 .
cause s o i l a n d a i r p o l l u t i o n , h a z a r d s f o r h u m a n s , a n i m a l s ,
S u b r a h m a n y a m , P., H i l d e b r a n d , G . L . , N a i d u , R . A . ,
R e d d y , L . J . , a n d S i n g h , A . K . 1 9 9 8 . S o u r c e s o f resistance
to
groundnut
rosette
disease
in
global
groundnut
germpiasm. Annals of Applied Biology 132:473-485.
and beneficial rhizosphere microorganisms. Therefore, an
alternative m e t h o d o f biological control o f plant pathogens
has been focused recently. T h e present study w a s c o n d u c t e d
to find out the effective b i o c o n t r o l agent against collar rot
as an alternative to fungicide.
S u b r a h m a n y a m , P., v a n W y k , P.S., K i s y o m b e , C . T . , C o l e ,
Experimental trials were conducted at the A g r i c u l t u r a l
D . L . , H i l d e b r a n d , G . L . , C h i y e m b e k e z a , A . J . , and v a n d e r
Research Station, A l i y a r n a g a r , T a m i l N a d u , I n d i a f o r t w o
M e r w e , P . J . A . 1 9 9 7 . Diseases o f g r o u n d n u t i n t h e S o u t h -
years in 1997 a n d 1998 c r o p p i n g seasons. G r o u n d n u t c u l t i v a r s
ern A f r i c a n Development C o m m u n i t y region and their
C o 2 [ r a i n y season ( k h a r i f ) ] a n d V R 1 4 [ p o s t r a i n y season
m a n a g e m e n t . I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l o f Pest M a n a g e m e n t
( r a b i ) ] , susceptible t o c o l l a r r o t w e r e s o w n i n 3 x 5 m 2 p l o t s
in a randomized block design w i t h three replications and
43:261-273.
eight treatments. T h e c o m m e r c i a l p r o d u c t o f the antagonists,
v i z . , Trichoderma viride a n d T. harzianum, b o t h at 4 g kg -1 of
seed a n d Pseudomonasfluorescens at
10 g kg - 1 w e r e u s e d
f o r seed t r e a t m e n t ( S T ) . T h e t r e a t e d seeds w e r e s h a d e
Management of Collar Rot of Groundnut
d r i e d a n d s o w n . C a r b e n d a z i m seed t r e a t m e n t ( 2 g k g 1 )
by Pseudomonas fluorescens
was also i n c l u d e d as one of the treatments. N e e m cake
w a s a p p l i e d t o t h e r e s p e c t i v e p l o t s a t 160 k g h a - 1 b e f o r e
J Sheela and D Packiaraj (Agricultural Research Station,
sowing. Control plots were maintained without any soil
T a m i l Nadu Agricultural University, Aliyarnagar 642 101,
application (SA).
T a m i l N a d u , India)
Pre-emergence rotting was estimated by c o u n t i n g the
n u m b e r o f g e r m i n a t e d seeds a t
C o l l a r r o t c a u s e d by Aspergillus niger
is
a widespread
disease i n g r o u n d n u t . Aspergillus niger causes r o t t i n g o f
10 days after s o w i n g
( D A S ) . Disease i n c i d e n c e w a s r e c o r d e d 2 5 a n d 4 5 D A S b y
c o u n t i n g the infected plants.
seed, pre-emergence soft r o t o f the h y p o c o t y l s , and post-
A m o n g t h e t r e a t m e n t s , P.fluorescens ( S T ) + n e e m c a k e
e m e r g e n c e c o l l a r r o t o f seedlings. C o l l a r r o t spreads t h r o u g h
( S A ) w a s f o u n d t o b e t h e best i n r e d u c i n g c o l l a r r o t ( 6 . 6 3 % )
t h e s p o r e s a d h e r i n g t o t h e seeds a n d p o d s f r o m o n e sea-
f o l l o w e d b y T . viride ( S T ) + n e e m c a k e ( S A ) ( 7 . 8 9 % ) , a n d
son to the other. Several w o r k e r s have tried to manage
P.flourescens ( S T ) ( 8 . 2 7 % ) a s c o m p a r e d t o 1 8 . 7 7 % i n c o n -
t h i s disease b y seed d r e s s i n g w i t h d i f f e r e n t f u n g i c i d e s
t r o l ( T a b l e 1). T r e a t m e n t s r e c e i v i n g T. viride ( S T ) + n e e m
(Sidhu and Chohan 1971, Whitehead and Thirumalachar
cake ( S A ) g a v e h i g h e r p o d y i e l d ( 1 8 4 9 . 4 9 k g ha - 1 ) f o l l o w e d
T a b l e 1 . E f f e c t o f a n t a g o n i s t s o n c o l l a r r o t incidence i n g r o u n d n u t d u r i n g 1 9 9 7 - 9 9 , A l i y a r n a g a r , T a m i l N a d u , I n d i a 1 .
Collar rot incidence 3 (%)
Treatment 2
Trichoderma
K 1997
viride (ST)
R 1997/98
11.83
13.44
(21.47)
6.45
(14.77)
8.49 ( 1 6 . 9 5 )
6.36
T. harzianum (ST) + neem cake ( S A )
12.51 ( 2 0 . 7 0 )
P.fluorescens (ST) + neem cake ( S A )
Carbendazim (ST)
T. harzianum (ST)
(ST)
T. viride (ST) + neem cake ( S A )
Control
C D (P = 0.05)
9.12
15.73 (23.34)
8.99 (17.36)
13.26 (11.39)
11.53(19.82)
14.42
(22.30)
15.41 (23.11)
14.75 ( 2 2 . 6 3 )
8.24
(16.64)
9.39 (17.85)
8.27 ( 1 6 . 7 4 )
(14.65)
7.32
(15.68)
9.39 ( 1 7 . 8 5 )
7.89 ( 1 6 . 3 2 )
10.30
(18.72)
10.22
(18.63)
11.19(19.55)
11.06 ( 1 9 . 4 6 )
6.66 (15.00)
5.73
(13.81)
6.46
(14.77)
7.66(16.11)
6.63 ( 1 4 . 8 9 )
3.30 (10.47)
2.27
(8.72)
3.46
(10.78)
3.20 ( 1 0 . 3 0 )
3.06(10.14)
20.60 ( 2 6 . 9 9 )
17.79
(24.95)
19.07
(25.91)
17.61 ( 2 4 . 8 0 )
18.77 ( 2 5 . 7 0 )
0.45
0.58
0.31
0.54
C o l l a r rot susceptible g r o u n d n u t c u l t i v a r s w e r e tested; Co 2 in k h a r i f ( K ) ( r a i n y season) and
2.
ST = Seed treatment; and SA = Soil application.
3.
F i g u r e s i n p a r e n t h e s e s are t r a n s f o r m e d v a l u e s .
2000
Mean
(20.09)
1.
50 I A N 20,
R 1998/99
K 1998
(17.56)
Pseudomonasfluorescens
11.88(20.13)
VRl
4 in rabi ( R ) (postrainy season).
T a b l e 2 . E f f e c t o f antagonists o n d r y p o d yield o f g r o u n d n u t d u r i n g 1 9 9 7 - 9 9 , A l i y a r n a g a r , T a m i l N a d u , I n d i a 1 .
Pod y i e l d ( k g ha -1 )
Treatment 2
Trichoderma
viride
(ST)
K 1997
R 1997/98
K 1998
R 1998/99
Mean
861.50
2612.97
893.33
2420.00
1696.95
T. harzianum ( S T )
933.75
2524.08
906.67
2349.99
1678.62
Pseudomonas fluorescens (ST)
933.75
2781.49
933.33
2553.53
1800.48
T. viride (ST) + neem cake ( S A )
975.00
2829.64
1026.67
2566.67
1849.49
T. harzianum (ST) + neem cake ( S A )
940.00
2601.85
919.99
2486.67
1737.13
P. fluorescens (ST) + neem cake ( S A )
1035.00
2305.56
1066.67
2533.33
1735.14
Carbendazim (ST)
1078.85
3048.16
1093.33
2580.00
1950.00
800.55
2468.53
813.34
2146.67
1557.14
55.32
201.04
76.21
188.12
Control
C D (P = 0.05)
1 . C o l l a r rot susceptible g r o u n d n u t c u l t i v a r s w e r e tested; C o 2 i n k h a r i f ( K ) ( r a i n y season) a n d V R I 4 i n r a b i ( R ) ( p o s t r a i n y season).
2.
ST = Seed t r e a t m e n t ; and SA = S o i l a p p l i c a t i o n .
b y P . f l u o r e s c e n s ( S T ) ( 1 8 0 0 . 4 8 k g ha - 1 ) a s c o m p a r e d t o
c o n t r o l ( 1 5 5 7 . 1 4 k g ha - 1 ) ( T a b l e 2 ) .
by N u t r i t i o n and Fungicide: An
L a s h i n e t a l . ( 1 9 8 9 ) r e p o r t e d that c o l l a r r o t disease i n c i dence was l o w e r in groundnuts receiving soil treatments
of T.
M a n a g e m e n t of L e a f Spots of G r o u n d n u t
Integrated Approach
harzianum at t h e s e e d l i n g a n d v e g e t a t i v e g r o w t h
S S Bag, S K R a j , and S Das (Department of Plant
stages.
Bioprotectants provide unique opportunities for crop
p r o t e c t i o n . A b i o p r o t e c t a n t a p p l i e d as seed t r e a t m e n t c a n
Pathology,
Bidhan
Chandra Kxishi
Viswavidyalaya,
M o h a n p u r 7 4 1 252,Nadia, West Bengal, India)
g r o w o n t h e p l a n t e d seed a n d the e m e r g i n g r o o t , a n d i f t h e
g e n e t i c s o f t h e b i o p r o t e c t a n t s are a p p r o p r i a t e , c o l o n i z e
and protect the entire subterranean plant portions f r o m
i n f e c t i o n . Seed treatment w i t h bioprotectants is quite inexpensive and ecofriendly as compared to other methods
o f disease c o n t r o l a n d c a n b e s u c c e s s f u l l y e x p l o i t e d f o r
the c o n t r o l of a w i d e range of seedborne as w e l l as s o i l -
G r o u n d n u t is one of the m a j o r oilseed crops after m u s t a r d
and g r o w n t h r o u g h o u t the year i n West B e n g a l , I n d i a .
Early
spot
l e a f spot
(Cercospora
(Phaeoisariopsis
arachidicola)
and
late
leaf
personata) cause s e r i o u s d a m a g e
t o g r o u n d n u t c r o p i n m a n y areas. T h e y i e l d d e c l i n e d b y
5 . 5 0 - 6 . 0 8 g p l o t - 1 ( 4 m 2 ) f o r e v e r y 1 % u n i t increase i n d i s ease s e v e r i t y ( D a s a n d R o y 1 9 9 5 ) . T o m i n i m i z e loss i n p o d
b o r n e diseases.
y i e l d various chemicals including systemic fungicides
have been used f r o m t i m e to t i m e ( L o k h a n d e et a l . 1998).
S t a g g e r e d use o f c h e m i c a l s f o r t h e m a n a g e m e n t o f c r o p
References
disease i s o f t e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h p r o b l e m s s u c h a s p o l l u L a s h i n , S . M . , E l - N a s r , H.I.S., E l - N a g a r , M . A . A . , and
t i o n hazards and residual t o x i c i t y .
N o f a l , M . A . 1 9 8 9 . B i o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l of Aspergillus niger
management through alteration of cultural operations and
t h e c a s u a l o r g a n i s m o f p e a n u t c r o w n r o t b y Trichoderma
b r e e d i n g f o r e l i t e , disease r e s i s t a n t c u l t i v a r s i s g a i n i n g
harzianum. A n n a l s o f A g r i c u l t u r a l S c i e n c e , C a i r o 3 4 : 7 9 5 -
importance in recent times ( G u p t a 1985, G h e w a n d e et a l .
803.
1992, W a l i y a r e t a l . 1993).
S i d h u , G . S . , a n d C h o h a n , J . S . 1 9 7 1 . T h e f i e l d scale testing of different fungicides for controlling collar rot of
groundnut. Journal o f Research, Punjab A g r i c u l t u r a l U n i versity, Ludhiana 8:211-213.
I n t e g r a t e d disease
An experiment was conducted to determine the effect
o f organic a n d inorganic n u t r i t i o n and its c o m b i n a t i o n
w i t h f u n g i c i d e o n t h e s e v e r i t y o f l e a f spots o f g r o u n d n u t .
Groundnut cultivar Phule Pragati ( J L 24) (susceptible to
e a r l y a n d late l e a f spots) w a s s o w n on 2 x 5 m p l o t s d u r i n g
W h i t e h e a d , M . D . , and T h i r u m a l a c h a r , M . J . 1974. E f f e c t
r a i n y season i n 1 9 9 7 a n d 1 9 9 8 . T h e e x p e r i m e n t w a s c o n -
of fungal
d u c t e d i n a r a n d o m i z e d b l o c k design w i t h three r e p l i c a t i o n s .
disease a n d Aspergillus
flavus
infestation
peanuts. Hindustan A n t i b i o t i c B u l l e i n 1 3 : 7 9 - 8 0 .
in
There w e r e 8 treatments: ( 1 ) N i t r o g e n - p h o s p h o r u s - p o t a s s i u m
I A N 20, 2000
51
( N P K ) a t 3 0 : 7 0 : 3 0 k g ha -1 ; ( 2 ) F a r m y a r d m a n u r e ( F Y M ) a t
1 3 1 ha - 1 w h i c h c o n t a i n s 0 . 2 5 % N , 0 . 5 0 % P 2 O 5 , a n d 0 . 2 5 %
K 2 O ; ( 3 ) F Y M + N P K at 6.5tha-1+15:35:15kg ha-1 respectively; (4) F Y M + N P K + fungicide; (5) N P K + fungicide;
T e n p l a n t s p e r p l o t p e r r e p l i c a t i o n w e r e selected r a n d o m l y t o assess t h e disease s e v e r i t y p e r p l o t ( m a x i m u m
rating = 6). A l l plants in a p l o t were harvested to compute
the t o t a l y i e l d .
(6) F Y M + fungicide; (7) Fungicide (no F Y M and N P K ) ;
and (8) Untreated control (no F Y M , N P K , and fungicide)
Disease c o n t r o l ( D C ) ( % ) w a s c a l c u l a t e d as:
( T a b l e 1). A l l t h e f e r t i l i z e r s a n d F Y M w e r e used a s basal
d u r i n g sowing. The fungicide Dithane M - 4 5 at 2 g L-1 of
w a t e r w a s s p r a y e d 4 t i m e s , 25 days after s o w i n g at 15-day
Disease s e v e r i t y ( % )
i n t e r v a l s . Disease s e v e r i t y o n i n d i v i d u a l p l a n t s w a s r a t e d ,
u s i n g 1-6 scale ( L e w i n e t a l . 1 9 7 3 ) , 1 0 days before harvest
by u s i n g a schematic d i a g r a m a n d c o m p u t e d as:
-
Disease s e v e r i t y ( % )
in control
in treatment
Disease s e v e n t y ( % ) i n c o n t r o l
T h e cost: b e n e f i t r a t i o w a s o b t a i n e d b y c a l c u l a t i n g
a c t u a l cost o f p r o d u c t i o n i n c l u d i n g cost o f f u n g i c i d e ,
fertilizers, and manures and their application, and the
actual market price o f produce.
S u m o f a l l numerical ratings
Severity index (%) =
x 100
T o t a l leaflets
x Maximum
observed
on total plants
A l l the treatments significantly reduced the severity o f
l e a f spots a n d i n c r e a s e d t h e p o d y i e l d a s c o m p a r e d w i t h
the untreated c o n t r o l . T h e y also s h o w e d d i f f e r e n t i a l
rating
effects i n c o n t r o l l i n g t h e l e a f spots u n d e r f i e l d c o n d i t i o n
T a b l e 1 . Disease s e v e r i t y o f e a r l y a n d l a t e l e a f spots a n d p o d y i e l d o f g r o u n d n u t i n d i f f e r e n t o r g a n i c a n d i n o r g a n i c
n u t r i e n t a n d fungicide c o m b i n a t i o n s i n r a i n y season 1 9 9 7 a n d 1 9 9 8 .
Disease severity 2 (%)
Treatment 1
NPK
FYM
NPK + F Y M
NPK + FYM +
fungicide
NPK +
fungicide
FYM +
fungicide
Fungicide
Control
(untreated)
SE
1997
1998
Mean
Disease
control
(%)
48.72
46.09
47.41
21.16
(44.26)
(42.74)
(43.49)
(27.31)
51.03
44.97
48.00
20.19
(45.59)
(42.11)
(43.85)
(26.67)
42.63
37.28
(40.76)
(37.62)
39.95
(39.19)
(35.41)
33.58
29.68
24.66
27.17
54.77
(32.99)
(29.76)
(31.37)
(47.74)
36.42
30.29
33.36
44.49
(37.13)
(33.39)
(35.26)
(41.84)
44.96
40.67
(42.09)
(39.62)
42.81
(40.85)
(32.42)
28.78
30.00
27.39
28.69
52.33
(33.21)
(31.56)
(32.38)
(46.32)
63.39
(52.82)
56.98
(49.01)
(50.91)
60.18
-
(%)
Cost:
benefit
1.11
28.91
0.4
1.20
1.10
28.15
0.3
1.31
1.57
1.49
67.79
1.0
1.77
1.83
1.80
109.30
1.5
1.52
1.76
1.64
90.55
1.3
1.00
1.23
1.12
29.94
0.6
0.84
0.94
0.89
3.25
0.1
0.73
1.00
0.86
-
-
1997
1998
Mean
0.95
1.27
1.00
±1.06
±0.69
±0.61
0.76
±0.069
±0.077
±0.041
±5.11
C D (P= 0.05)
2.30
1.50
1.69
0.150
0.168
0.089
11.38
C V (%)
3.08
2.15
1.33
1.84
2.66
7.17
6.60
3.82
10.27
1 . See t e x t f o r t r e a t m e n t d e t a i l s a n d c a l c u l a t i o n o f disease c o n t r o l .
2.
Pod y i e l d
increase
over control
Pod y i e l d (t ha -1 )
F i g u r e s i n parentheses are a v e r a g e a n g u l a r t r a n s f o r m e d v a l u e s .
52 I A N 20, 2000
( T a b l e 1). T h e plots w h i c h w e r e treated w i t h N P K + F Y M +
f u n g i c i d e s h o w e d t h e least disease s e v e r i t y f o l l o w e d b y
f u n g i c i d e a l o n e a n d N P K + f u n g i c i d e . T h e treatment N P K
+ F Y M + f u n g i c i d e w a s s u p e r i o r i n r e d u c i n g the disease
severity f o l l o w e d by fungicide alone, N P K + fungicide,
a n d N P K + F Y M . These treatments also s h o w e d g o o d
p e r f o r m a n c e i n disease c o n t r o l ( % ) ( T a b l e 1). T h i s t r e n d
w a s o b s e r v e d i n b o t h years. N o s i g n i f i c a n t difference w a s
o b s e r v e d i n r e d u c i n g the disease s e v e r i t y w h e n p l o t s
w e r e treated w i t h o n l y N P K o r F Y M .
I t w a s o b s e r v e d that decrease i n disease s e v e r i t y i n creased p o d y i e l d . T h e p o o l e d data o f t w o years s h o w e d
that the p o d y i e l d d i d n o t d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n treatments
i n w h i c h N P K a n d F Y M w e r e a p p l i e d separately. S i m i l a r
r e s u l t w a s also o b s e r v e d i n the p l o t s treated w i t h F Y M +
f u n g i c i d e . T h e treatments N P K + F Y M + f u n g i c i d e a n d
N P K + f u n g i c i d e gave h i g h e r p o d y i e l d t h a n others. T h e
l o w e s t p o d y i e l d w a s o b s e r v e d i n the test p l o t s treated
w i t h fungicide alone f o l l o w e d b y F Y M and N P K application.
B h a r a d w a j a n d S h y a m ( 1 9 9 3 ) r e p o r t e d that a p p l i c a t i o n o f
s u l f e x i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h N P K resulted i n r e d u c t i o n o f
p o w d e r y m i l d e w o f pea a n d increase i n m a x i m u m p o d
y i e l d . S a l a k o ( 1 9 9 0 ) also s h o w e d that f u n g i c i d e m i x t u r e s
such as t r i d e m o r p h + m a n e b or t r i d e m o r p h + b e n o m y l
w e r e m o r e e f f e c t i v e i n c o n t r o l l i n g l e a f spots a n d rust o f
g r o u n d n u t w i t h increased P a p p l i c a t i o n o f p l o t s (at least
u p t o 1 8 k g h a - 1 ) . T h e cost:benefit r a t i o s h o w e d that a p p l i cation o f N P K + F Y M + fungicide gave the m a x i m u m p r o f i t
f o l l o w e d by N P K + fungicide and N P K + F Y M . Thus
a p p l i c a t i o n o f N P K a t 15:35:15 k g h a - 1 i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h
6 . 5 1 h a - 1 F Y M a n d 4 sprays o f D i t h a n e M - 4 5 a t 2 g L - 1 o f
w a t e r w a s g o o d f o r c o n t r o l l i n g l e a f spots a n d i n c r e a s i n g
pod y i e l d of groundnut f o l l o w e d by N P K + fungicide and
N P K + F Y M treatments.
References
B h a r a d w a j , S.S., and S h y a m , K . R . 1993. Effect of fungicide
n u t r i e n t a p p l i c a t i o n s o n p o w d e r y m i l d e w disease a n d p o d
y i e l d i n pea. I n d i a n J o u r n a l o f P l a n t P r o t e c t i o n 2 1 : 8 5 - 8 6 .
D a s , S., a n d R o y , T . K . 1995. A s s e s s m e n t o f losses i n
g r o u n d n u t d u e t o e a r l y a n d late l e a f spots. I n t e r n a t i o n a l
Arachis N e w s l e t t e r 1 5 : 3 4 - 3 6 .
G h e w a n d e , M . P . , D e s a i , S., N a r a y a n , P r e m , and I n g l e ,
A . P . 1 9 9 2 . A n i n t e g r a t e d a p p r o a c h t o the m a n a g e m e n t o f
f o l i a r diseases of g r o u n d n u t . Page 4 7 7 in G r o u n d n u t - a
g l o b a l prospective: proceedings o f a n intenational w o r k s h o p ,
2 5 - 2 9 N o v 1 9 9 1 , I C R I S A T Center, I n d i a . Patancheru
502 3 2 4 , A n d h r a Pradesh, I n d i a : International Crops
R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e f o r the S e m i - A r i d T r o p i c s .
G u p t a , D . K . 1985. Effect o f dates o f s o w i n g o n the o c c u r rence o f l e a f spots o f g r o u n d n u t . I n d i a n P h y t o p a t h o l o g y
38:738-740.
L e w i n , H . D . , N a t a r a j a n , S., and G o v i n d a r a j a n , K . 1973.
C o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n s o w i n g t i m e a n d w e a t h e r factors o n
the i n t e n s i t y o f g r o u n d n u t disease. I n d i a n J o u r n a l o f
M y c o l o g y a n d Plant P a t h o l o g y 3 : 2 6 - 3 2 .
L o k h a n d e , N . M . , L a n j e w a r , R . D . , and N e w a s k a r , V . B .
1998. Effect o f d i f f e r e n t fungicides a n d n e e m p r o d u c t s f o r
c o n t r o l o f l e a f spot o f g r o u n d n u t . J o u r n a l o f S o i l s a n d
Crops 8 : 4 4 - 4 6 .
S a l a k o , E . A . 1990. Performance o f t w o m o r p h o l i n e based
fungicides w h e n a p p l i e d t o g r o u n d n u t b y u l t r a l o w v o l u m e
a t f i v e d i f f e r e n t phosphate f e r t i l i z e r levels. T r o p i c a l A g r i culture 6 7 : 1 5 4 - 1 5 8 .
W a l i y a r , F . , M c D o n a l d , D . , R a o , P . V . S . , and R e d d y , P . M .
1993. C o m p o n e n t s o f resistance t o a n I n d i a n source o f
Cercospora arachidicola in selected peanut lines. Peanut
Science 2 0 : 9 3 - 9 6 .
Bio-efficacy of Carbendazim and
Mancozeb-based Fungicide in C o n t r o l of
E a r l y and Late L e a f Spots of G r o u n d n u t
M S Joshi, P G B o r k a r , and A M M a n d o k h o t (Department
of Plant Pathology, Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth, Dapoli
415 712, Maharashtra, India)
E a r l y a n d late l e a f spots o f g r o u n d n u t , caused b y
Cercospora
arachidicola
and
Phaeoisariopsis personata
respectively are endemic diseases in b o t h r a i n y a n d s u m m e r
c r o p seasons u n d e r K o n k a n c o n d i t i o n s i n I n d i a . Besides
c a u s i n g q u a n t i t a t i v e losses, these diseases are r e s p o n s i b l e
for reduction in protein content and o i l recovery ( G u p t a et
a l . 1987). S o far, there i s n o resistant o r t o l e r a n t v a r i e t y t o
these diseases w h i c h w i l l suit a g r o c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s o f
the region. As a result, use of fungicides is the o n l y alternative
for effective management of these diseases. T h o u g h several
fungicides are already r e c o m m e n d e d b y d i f f e r e n t w o r k e r s ,
i t i s necessary t o test the e f f i c a c y o f n e w f u n g i c i d e s
against these l e a f spots.
A new fungicide constituting carbendazim 12% and
m a n c o z e b 6 3 % has b e e n d e v e l o p e d b y M / s U n i t e d
Phosphorus L t d . , M u m b a i , India. This fungicide was
tested a t three c o n c e n t r a t i o n s ( 0 . 0 2 5 % , 0 . 0 5 % , a n d 0.1 % )
w i t h the r e c o m m e n d e d c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f c a r b e n d a z i m ,
I A N 20, 2000 53
T a b l e 1 . I n t e n s i t y o f e a r l y a n d late l e a f spots o f g r o u n d n u t i n plots s p r a y e d w i t h d i f f e r e n t fungicides, a l o n e a n d i n
combination d u r i n g 1996/97.
Disease intensity 1 (%)
Fungicide treatment
Carbendazim + mancozeb ( 1 2 % + 63%)
Carbendazim + mancozeb ( 1 2 % + 63%)
Carbendazim + mancozeb ( 1 2 % + 63%)
Carbendazim (50%)
Mancozeb (75%)
Copper oxychloride (50%)
Control (no fungicide spray)
SE
C D (5%)
1.
Rainy season crop
Summer crop
Mean
0.025
0.05
0.1
0.1
0.25
0.25
47.78
41.52
26.27
38.35
31.39
49.38
14.16
15.00
4.70
7.80
14.30
30.97
28.26
15.49
23.07
22.84
-
55.66
±2.484
18.13
27.63
±1.99
33.75
41.64
±2.90
7.94
Concentration (%)
7.65
6.16
M e a n o f three replications.
m a n c o z e b , a n d c o p p e r o x y c h l o r i d e ( T a b l e 1). F i e l d t r i a l s
w e r e c o n d u c t e d d u r i n g 1 9 9 6 / 9 7 r a i n y season a n d s u m m e r
c r o p season. T h e popular b u t susceptible groundnut c u l t i v a r
K o n k a n Gaurav was s o w n i n randomized b l o c k design i n
three replications. Standard and r e c o m m e n d e d package
o f practices for tillage, spacing, m a n u r i n g , and i r r i g a t i o n
were f o l l o w e d . T h e f i r s t spray o f fungicide was done
w h e n the i n i t i a l s y m p t o m s o f t h e diseases appeared i n t h e
p l o t s . T h i s w a s f o l l o w e d b y t w o m o r e sprays a t f o r t n i g h t l y
i n t e r v a l s . Disease i n t e n s i t y w a s r e c o r d e d o n t e n r a n d o m l y
selected p l a n t s f r o m each t r e a t m e n t a t w e e k l y i n t e r v a l s b y
u s i n g 0 - 9 scale ( M a y e e a n d D a t a r 1 9 8 6 ) a n d t h e average
disease i n t e n s i t y ( % ) w a s c a l c u l a t e d b y t h e f o r m u l a used
b y M c K i n n e y (1923).
carbendazim + mancozeb fungicide at 0 . 1 % concentration
i s the m o s t e f f e c t i v e f u n g i c i d e a n d i t i s a t p a r w i t h 0 . 1 %
c a r b e n d a z i m a n d 0 . 2 5 % m a n c o z e b . T h i s indicates that the
fungicide containing carbendazim 12% and mancozeb
6 3 % at 0.1 % is as effective as c a r b e n d a z i m 5 0 % at 0.1 % or
m a n c o z e b 7 5 % a t 0 . 2 5 % i n c o n t r o l l i n g e a r l y a n d late l e a f
spots o f g r o u n d n u t .
References
G u p t a , S . K . , G u p t a , P . O . , P a r a s h a r , R . D . , and S i n d h a n ,
G . S . 1987. F u n g i c i d a l c o n t r o l o f l e a f spots a n d i n f l u e n c e
on quality of groundnut. Indian Phytopathology 4 0 : 3 6 0 364.
Disease i n t e n s i t y w a s h i g h ( 5 5 . 6 6 % ) d u r i n g m o n s o o n
compared to the summer crop ( 2 7 . 6 3 % ) . T h i s m a y be due
t o p r o l o n g e d f a v o r a b l e c l i m a t e f o r disease d e v e l o p m e n t
d u r i n g t h e r a i n y season.
M a y e e , C D . , a n d D a t a r , V . V . 1986. P h y t o p a t h o m e t r y .
Technical B u l l e t i n 1. Parbhani, Maharashtra, India:
Maharashtra A g r i c u l t u r a l University. 91 pp.
T h e c o m p a r i s o n o f p o o l e d m e a n s i n d i c a t e that
c a r b e n d a z i m + m a n c o z e b - b a s e d f u n g i c i d e at a l l three c o n centrations, c a r b e n d a z i m a t 0 . 1 % , a n d m a n c o z e b a t 0 . 2 5 %
w e r e significantly superior as compared to c o n t r o l . H o w e v e r ,
M c K i n n e y , H . H . 1923. I n f l u e n c e o f s o i l t e m p e r a t u r e a n d
m o i s t u r e o n the i n f e c t i o n o f w h e a t s e e d l i n g s b y
Helminthosporium
sativum.
Journal
of A g r i c u l t u r a l
Research26:195-217.
54 I A N 20, 2000
Induction of Phenols in G r o u n d n u t Rust
phenols (total and ortho-dihydroxy phenols) and their
o x i d a t i v e e n z y m e , p o l y p h e n o l oxidase, i n resistant a n d
Resistance
susceptible g r o u n d n u t cultivars f o l l o w i n g rust i n f e c t i o n .
The materials comprised o f t w o w e l l adapted, rust
A L Rathna K u m a r and P Balasubramanian (Centre
susceptible c u l t i v a r s T M V 1 a n d V R I 2 , a n d t w o p r o v e n
for Plant Breeding and Genetics, Tamil Nadu Agricultural
resistant d o n o r s , I C G 1697 ( N c A c 1 7 0 9 0 ) a n d I C G 1 0 0 5 3
University, Coimbatore 641 003, T a m i l Nadu, India)
( P I 4 7 6 1 8 3 ) . T h e seeds w e r e s o w n i n e a r t h e n p o t s f i l l e d
w i t h sterile soil in a glasshouse.
Rust (Puccinia arachidis) is a serious disease of g r o u n d n u t .
Uredospores were collected f r o m infected plants f r o m
I t causes severe y i e l d a n d h a u l m losses a n d a f f e c t s t h e
the field and inoculated on 5 0 - d a y - o l d plants as per the
seed q u a l i t y . F e w c h e m i c a l s h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d t o c o n -
procedure of Subrahmanyam et al. (1995). Control plants
t r o l t h e disease. H o w e v e r , e x p l o i t a t i o n o f host resistance
were sprayed w i t h distilled water. Estimation of phenols
w o u l d b e a n i d e a l a p p r o a c h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f subsistence
and assay o f e n z y m e w a s c a r r i e d o u t a s p e r s t a n d a r d p r o c e -
f a r m i n g of resource-limited semi-arid tropical regions of
dure (Rao et al. 1 9 8 8 ) at 1 , 2 , 3 , 5 , and 7 days after i n o c u l a t i o n
the w o r l d . B e f o r e f o r m u l a t i o n o f a suitable breeding strategy,
(DAI).
u n d e r s t a n d i n g the basic m e c h a n i s m s associated w i t h
It was observed that the total phenols increased in
r e s i s t a n c e b e c o m e s necessary.
response t o i n f e c t i o n b y t h e p a t h o g e n w i t h i n a d a y a f t e r
A g r e a t d e a l o f w o r k has b e e n d o n e o n the e x p r e s s i o n
i n o c u l a t i o n i n b o t h resistant a n d s u s c e p t i b l e c u l t i v a r s .
a n d m e c h a n i s m s o f resistance a t t h e site o f i n f e c t i o n o r
T h e a c c u m u l a t i o n o f p h e n o l s w a s a t faster rate i n the resis-
u p o n c h a l l e n g i n g v i r u l e n t pathogen o n the host i n m a n y
tant cultivars than in the susceptible cultivars u n t i l 3 D A I
l e g u m i n o u s crops ( D e v e r a l l and D a n n 1995). It is evident
(Table 1). Thereafter (5 D A I ) , a sudden decline in the contents
f r o m these studies that p h e n o l s a n d their o x i d a t i o n p r o d u c t s
o f p h e n o l w a s r e c o r d e d i n t h e resistant c u l t i v a r s w h i l e i n
are i m p l i c a t e d i n disease resistance. T h e a n t i - m i c r o b i a l
the susceptible cultivars the decline was g r a d u a l . T h e
p r o p e r t i e s o f p h e n o l i c s are d u e t o r a p i d a c c u m u l a t i o n o f
decrease i n p h e n o l s o b s e r v e d i n resistant c u l t i v a r s m a y
t h e i r o x i d i z e d p r o d u c t s i n v i t a l l o c i w i t h i n the c e l l w a l l ,
b e due t o c h a n n e l i z a t i o n o f p h e n o l s f o r l i g n i n b i o s y n t h e s i s
w h i c h in turn brings about interference in the metabolism
( T a y l o r a n d Z u c k e r 1966).
of the host as w e l l as pathogen ( K u c 1964). H o w e v e r ,
Pattern o f a c c u m u l a t i o n o f o r t h o - d i h y d r o x y phenols
studies p e r t a i n i n g t o g r o u n d n u t a n d rust are rather l i m i t e d .
indicated sudden spurt in the levels a m o n g resistant c u l t i v a r s
H e n c e , an experiment was conducted on the i n d u c t i o n of
w i t h i n a day after inoculation and persisted u n t i l 7 D A I .
T a b l e 1. C h a n g e s in t o t a l phenols in response to i n o c u l a t i o n w i t h Puccinia arachidis in g r o u n d n u t genotypes.
Days after inoculation 1
1
Treatment
Genotype
2
3
5
7
220 f g
Susceptible
TMV 1
VRI 2
Healthy
240 fg
310gh
340 g
210gh
Inoculated
278 de
(15.8)
438 de
484 de
322 e
(41.3)
(42.3)
(34.8)
(27.3)
Healthy
220 gh
368 g
342 gh
228 g
214 gh
Inoculated
268 ef
570 c
480 ef
298 f
248 ef
(17.9)
(38.6)
(40.3)
(30.7)
(15.9)
Healthy
300 c
435 ef
540 c
440 bc
420 a
Inoculated
446 a
720 a
880 a
499 a
384 bc
(48.7)
(65.5)
(63.0)
(13.4)
(-8.6)
Healthy
286 cd
440 d
498 cd
402 cd
390 ab
Inoculated
404 ab
697 ab
764 b
451 ab
341 cd
(41.3)
(58.4)
(53.4)
(12.2)
(-12.6)
280 e
Resistant
I C G 1697
I C G 10053
1.
D a t a expressed as µg g-1 fresh w e i g h t of tissue.
F i g u r e s f o l l o w e d b y t h e s a m e l e t t e r s are n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t ( P = 0 . 0 5 ) a c c o r d i n g t o F i s h e r ' s l e a s t s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e test.
Figures
in parentheses
indicate
increase/decrease (%) o v e r h e a l t h y .
I A N 20, 2000
55
T a b l e 2. C h a n g e s in o r t h o - d i h y d r o x y phenols in g r o u n d n u t leaves in response to i n o c u l a t i o n w i t h Puccinia arachidis.
Days after inoculation 1
1
Treatment
Genotype
2
3
7
5
Susceptible
TMV 1
VRI 2
Healthy
50 gh
53 gh
60 gh
58 gh
53 gh
Inoculated
74 cd
79 d
99 cd
86 de
72 ef
(48.0)
(49.1)
(65.0)
(48.2)
(35.8)
Healthy
60 fg
64 fg
67 g
64g
60 fg
Inoculated
88 c
98 c
106 c
96 c
79 e
(46.7)
(53.1)
(58.2)
(56.0)
(31.7)
Resistant
Healthy
I C G 1697
65 de
Inoculated
Healthy
I C G 10053
Inoculated
1.
78 de
83 e
90 cd
98 c
109 a
137 a
150 a
168 a
190 a
(67.7)
(75.6)
(80.7)
(86.6)
(93.9)
62 ef
72 ef
80 ef
84 ef
89 d
103 ab
122 b
144 ab
156 ab
170 ab
(66.1)
(69.4)
(80.0)
(85.7)
(91.0)
D a t a e x p r e s s e d a s µ g g - 1 f r e s h w e i g h t o f tissue.
F i g u r e s f o l l o w e d b y t h e s a m e l e t t e r s are n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t ( P = 0 . 0 5 ) a c c o r d i n g t o F i s h e r ' s least s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e test.
Figures
in parentheses
indicate
increase (%) o v e r healthy.
T a b l e 3. C h a n g e s in p o l y p h e n o l oxidase a c t i v i t y in g r o u n d n u t leaves in response to i n o c u l a t i o n w i t h Puccinia arachidis.
Days after inoculation 1
Genotype
Treatment
1
2
3
5
7
31 d
Susceptible
TMV 1
Healthy
43 ef
39 e
36 de
33 e
Inoculated
54 b
29 gh
22 fg
16 fg
12 fg
(-38.8)
(-51.5)
(-61.3)
(25.6)
VRl 2
(-25.6)
Healthy
39 fg
34 ef
30 ef
27 ef
Inoculated
50 bc
30 fg
22 fg
17 gh
(28.2)
(-13.3)
(-26.6)
(-37.0)
25 de
14 e f
(-44.0)
Resistant
I C G 1697
I C G 10053
Healthy
49 cd
52 c
54 c
59 c
56 c
Inoculated
80 a
88 a
96a
109 ab
102 a
(82.1)
(63.3)
(69.2)
(77.7)
(84.7)
Healthy
47 de
49 cd
52 cd
58 cd
Inoculated
80 a
86 ab
92 ab
(75.5)
(76.9)
(70.2)
1.
D a t a expressed a s o p t i c a l density ( O D ) (units) o f reaction m i x t u r e a t 4 9 0 n m after
180s; OD of 0.001
110a
(89.7)
-
1
56 c
104 ab
(85.7)
unit.
F i g u r e s f o l l o w e d b y t h e s a m e l e t t e r s are n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t ( P = 0 . 0 S ) a c c o r d i n g t o F i s h e r ' s l e a s t s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e test.
Figures
56
in parentheses
I A N 20, 2000
indicate
increase/decrease (%) o v e r healthy.
O n the c o n t r a r y , i n susceptible c u l t i v a r s , a l t h o u g h the
levels o f o r t h o - d i h y d r o x y phenols were i n i t i a l l y h i g h i t
reduced progressively from 5 D A I (Table 2). It is reported
t h a t o r t h o - d i h y d r o x y p h e n o l s are h i g h l y f u n g i t o x i c a n d
a c c u m u l a t e r a p i d l y i n resistant c u l t i v a r s f o l l o w i n g i n f e c t i o n b y the p a t h o g e n ( B h a t i a e t a l . 1972) a s o b s e r v e d i n
the present s t u d y .
A c t i v i t y o f p o l y p h e n o l oxidase ( P P O ) was h i g h e r i n the
infected leaves o f resistant cultivars t h r o u g h o u t the g r o w t h
p e r i o d t h a n i n the susceptible c u l t i v a r s , w h i c h r e c o r d e d a
d e c l i n e i n the e n z y m e a c t i v i t y w i t h i n 2 D A I ( T a b l e 3 ) .
Kosuge (1969) reported that phenols are oxidized to quinones
b y P P O a n d there exists d i r e c t c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n the
a c c u m u l a t i o n o f p h e n o l s a n d the a c t i v i t y o f P P O . T h i s
supports the present s t u d y .
B a s e d on the a b o v e studies it is clear that p h e n o l s are
i n d u c e d f o l l o w i n g rust i n f e c t i o n and p l a y a m a j o r role
in g r o u n d n u t rust resistance. Such an i n d u c t i o n m a y be
a g e n e r a l defense r e s p o n s e or a p h y t o a l e x i n p e r se.
I n t e r e s t i n g l y , i t w a s o b s e r v e d that susceptible c u l t i v a r s
h a d shorter i n c u b a t i o n p e r i o d , greater i n f e c t i o n frequency,
a n d l e s i o n d i a m e t e r t h a n the resistant c u l t i v a r s (data n o t
p r o v i d e d ) . H e n c e , i t i s p r o b a b l e that i n d u c t i o n o f p h e n o l s
m a y b e m o r e o f a p h y t o a l e x i n response than the e l i c i t a t i o n
o f general defense. F u r t h e r studies s h o u l d focus o n ident i f i c a t i o n o f specific p h e n o l i c c o m p o u n d ( s ) associated
w i t h p h y t o a l e x i n a c t i v i t y and understanding m e c h a n i s m ( s )
of induction.
References
B h a t i a , I . S . , S h a r m a , H . K . , and B a j a j , K . L . 1972. A study
o f i n h i b i t o r y effect o f p o l y p h e n o l s o n e n d o p o l y
galacturonase f r o m Aspergillus niger. P h y t o p a t h o l o g y
68:1032-1036.
D e v e r a l l , B.J., and D a n n , E . K . 1995. Induced resistance in
l e g u m e s . Pages 1-30 in I n d u c e d resistance to disease in
plants ( H a m m e r s c h m i d t , R., a n d K u c , J., eds.). D o r d r e c h t ,
T h e N e t h e r l a n d s : K l u w e r A c a d e m i c Publishers.
Kosuge, T . 1969. T h e r o l e o f p h e n o l i c s i n host response t o
infection. A n n u a l Review of Phytopathology 7:195-222.
K u c , J . 1964. P h e n o l i c c o m p o u n d s a n d disease resistance
in plants. Pages 6 3 - 8 1 in Phenolics in n o r m a l a n d diseased
f r u i t s a n d vegetables ( R u n e c k l e s , J., ed.). M o n t r e a l , U S A :
Imperial Tobacco Co.
R a o , K . , M o h a m m e d , Z . , and M a t s u y a m a , N . 1988. Phenol
m e t a b o l i s m a n d p l a n t disease resistance. A c t a P h y t o pathologica et Entomologica Hungarica 23:103-114.
S u b r a h m a n a y a m , P., M c D o n a l d , D . , W a l i y a r , F . , R e d d y ,
L J . , N i g a m , S.N., Gibbons, R . W . , R a m a n a t h a Rao, V . ,
Singh, A . K . , Pande, S., R e d d y , P . M . , and Subba R a o , P . V .
1995. S c r e e n i n g m e t h o d s a n d sources o f resistance t o
rust a n d late l e a f spot o f g r o u n d n u t . I n f o r m a t i o n B u l l e t i n
no. 47. Patancheru 502 324, A n d h r a Pradesh, I n d i a :
I n t e r n a t i o n a l C r o p s Research Institute for the S e m i - A r i d
Tropics. 24 pp.
T a y l o r , A . , and Z u c k e r , M . 1966. T u r n o v e r and m e t a b o l i s m
i n c h l o r o g e n i c a c i d i n X a n t h i u m leaves a n d p o t a t o tubers.
Plant P h y s i o l o g y 4 1 : 1 3 5 0 - 1 3 5 9 .
Characterization of Isolates of
Trichoderma for Biocontrol Potential
Against Aspergillus flavus Infection in
Groundnut
S Desai 1 , R P Thakur 2 , V P Rao 2 , and V A n j a i a h 2
( 1 . National Research Centre for Groundnut ( N R C G ) ,
Ivnagar Road, PB No. 5, Junagadh 362 001, Gujarat, India;
2. International Crops Research institute for the SemiA r i d Tropics ( I C R I S A T ) , Patancheru 502 324, Andhra
Pradesh, India)
G r o u n d n u t s are infected i n the f i e l d , d u r i n g p r o c e s s i n g ,
a n d in storage by Aspergillus flavus r e s u l t i n g in a c c u m u l a t i o n o f a f l a t o x i n s i n the seeds, thus r e n d e r i n g t h e m u n f i t
f o r c o n s u m p t i o n a n d trade. A f l a t o x i n s have been r e p o r t e d
to be immunosuppressive, carcinogenic, and teretogenic
i n nature. I n the absence o f acceptable levels o f host p l a n t
resistance, use o f b i o c o n t r o l agents c o u l d b e a p r o m i s i n g
a l t e r n a t i v e f o r the m a n a g e m e n t o f a f l a t o x i n c o n t a m i n a t i o n . Trichoderma spp are w e l l k n o w n f o r t h e i r b i o c o n t r o l
a b i l i t y , e s p e c i a l l y against s o i l b o r n e p l a n t p a t h o g e n s , a n d
these h a v e several m o d e s of a c t i o n . A s y s t e m a t i c charact e r i z a t i o n a n d c a t a l o g i n g o f isolates f o r d i f f e r e n t m o d e s o f
biocontrol ability w i l l help in deployment of a biocontrol
a g e n t f o r e f f e c t i v e l y m a n a g i n g p l a n t p a t h o g e n s . Prel i m i n a r y o b s e r v a t i o n s have i n d i c a t e d that s o m e isolates
of Trichoderma are e f f e c t i v e against A. flavus. We r e p o r t
the in v i t r o antagonistic characteristics of some Trichoderma
isolates against A. flavus.
A t o t a l o f 2 6 Trichoderma i s o l a t e s , b e l o n g i n g t o
f i v e species aggregates, viride, hamatum, harzianum,
auroviride, a n d longibrachiatum, o b t a i n e d from d i f f e r e n t
sources w e r e used in the s t u d y ( T a b l e 1). T h e A. flavus
isolate A f 11-4, w h i c h i s a h i g h l y aggressive seed c o l o n i z e r
I A N 20, 2000 57
a n d i s t o x i g e n i c w a s u s e d a s t h e test p a t h o g e n . T h e
by T. viride - N A R D I ( 3 6 6 m g ) , f o l l o w e d by T. harzianum
Trichoderma
- A P D R C 1 9 ( 3 5 3 m g ) , a n d t h e least g r o w t h w a s r e c o r d e d
isolates
were
characterized
for growth
in
broth culture, antagonism in dual culture, production of
f o r T hamatum - T 0 4 9 ( 7 5 m g ) ( T a b l e 1). T h i s c h a r a c t e r
v o l a t i l e a n d n o n - v o l a t i l e substances t h a t are i n h i b i t o r y t o
w o u l d b e useful f o r mass m u l t i p l i c a t i o n o f the f u n g u s f o r
A . f l a v u s , a n d t o l e r a n c e t o c o m m o n l y u s e d seed d r e s s i n g
use i n p r o d u c t f o r m u l a t i o n .
fungicides (carbendazim and thiram).
The
ability
o f Trichoderma
isolates t o
suppress
the
A l l Trichoderma isolates w e r e g r o w n o n p o t a t o d e x t r o s e
g r o w t h o f A . f l a v u s was tested i n v i t r o b y d u a l - c u l t u r e
b r o t h f o r seven days at 28 ± 1°C w i t h a 12-h p h o t o p e r i o d .
m e t h o d (Deacon 1976) and their effectiveness was scored
A f t e r the harvest, d r y w e i g h t o f m y c e l i u m o f the various
on a n u m e r i c a l scale ( B e l l et al. 1982) w i t h slight m o d i f i c a t i o n s
i s o l a t e s w a s r e c o r d e d . T h e isolates d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y
as:
in their growth. M a x i m u m mycelial dry weight was produced
2 = Trichoderma c o v e r i n g 2/3 r d of the plate a n d p r o g r e s s i n g
1
= Trichoderma o v e r g r o w i n g t h e c o l o n y of A.flavus;
T a b l e 1 . I n v i t r o g r o w t h o f 2 6 isolates o f Trichoderma spp a s mycelial d r y w e i g h t a n d influence o f non-volatiles p r o d u c e d
by
Trichoderma isolates on g r o w t h of Aspergillus flavus.
Trichoderma
species
Identity
Source 1
M y c e l i a l dry weight 2
C o l o n y diameter 3
(mg)
(mm)
T.
viride
T071
N R C G , India
191
22
T.
viride
T219
N R C G , India
229
20
T.
hamatum
T049
N R C G , India
75
T.
hamatum
T166
Dornach, Switzerland
230
21
T.
hamatum
354
Giessen, Germany
253
22
17
19
T.
harzianum
043
N R C G , India
261
T,
harzianum
126
N R C G , India
155
17
T.
harzianum
127
N R C G , India
167
22
T.
harzianum
144
N R C G , India
226
18
T.
harzianum
250
N R C G , India
182
24
T.
harzianum
295
N R C G , India
220
19
T.
harzianum
390
ATCC, USA
277
22
T.
harzianum
T.
longibrachiatum
391
A T C C , USA
167
17
TL-3
R A U , India
152
18
TV4
R A U , India
177
21
T.
auroviride
TA-2
R A U , India
197
21
T.
harzianum
TH-1
R A U , India
284
27
T.
viride
APDRC3
P K V , India
255
21
T.
viride
T.
harzianum
APDRC4
P K V , India
246
22
T.
viride
A P D R C 12
P K V , India
279
22
T.
harzianum
A P D R C 19
P K V , India
353
18
T.
harzianum
OPTNAB
Philippines
172
23
T.
viride
Bca6
I C R I S A T , India
238
23
Trichoderma
T.
sp
viride
Trichoderma
sp
MPH
I C R I S A T , India
314
19
NARDI
N A R D I , India
366
17
Ananthapur
I C R I S A T , India
312
-
20
A. flavus (control)
SEm
L S D (P = 0.05)
USA; R A U
=
±13.3
59.9
1. N R C G - National
Krishi
85
±21.08
38.4
Research Centre f o r G r o u n d n u t , Junagadh, Gujarat, I n d i a ; A T C C - A m e r i c a n T y p e C u l t u r e C o l l e c t i o n ,
Rajasthan Agricultural
Vidyapeeth,
Akola,
University, College of Agriculture,
Maharshtra,
India;
ICRISAT
=
Udaipur, Rajasthan, India; P K V
International
Crops
Research
Institute
=
for
Maryland,
D r Panjabrao D e s h m u k h
the
Semi-Arid
Tropics,
Patancheru, A n d h r a Pradesh, I n d i a ; N A R D I - Nagarjuna A g r i c u l t u r a l Research and D e v e l o p m e n t Institute, H y d e r a b a d , A n d h r a Pradesh,
India.
2.
M y c e l i a l g r o w t h f r o m 7-day-old culture in potato dextrose broth at 28 ± 1°C; mean of three replications.
3.
Colony diameter of A.
58
I A N 20, 2000
flavus
( A f 11-4) recorded
10 days after i n c u b a t i o n at 2 8 ± 1 ° C ; m e a n of three replications.
t o w a r d s A. flavus; a n d 3 = Trichoderma a n d A. flavus
m e e t i n g at h a l f w a y of the petri dish and p r o d u c i n g i n h i b i t i o n zone. Seven isolates w e r e fast g r o w i n g a n d w e r e r a t e d
1, 16 isolates w e r e r a t e d 2, a n d three isolates p r o d u c e d
i n h i b i t i o n zone w i t h A. flavus and were rated 3.
T o test the a b i l i t y o f these isolates f o r the p r o d u c t i o n
o f v o l a t i l e a n d n o n - v o l a t i l e c h e m i c a l s that are i n h i b i t o r y
to A. flavus the m e t h o d of Dennis and Webster (1971a,
1 9 7 1 b ) w a s f o l l o w e d . W h i l e assessing the p r o d u c t i o n o f
v o l a t i l e s , c o l o n y d i a m e t e r s of Trichoderma a n d A. flavus
w e r e r e c o r d e d d a i l y , f o r seven days. N o n e o f the isolates
o f Trichoderma i n h i b i t e d t h e g r o w t h o f A . f l a v u s b y p r o d u c t i o n o f v o l a t i l e s . W h i l e assessing t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f
n o n - v o l a t i l e chemicals, i n i t i a l l y , there was v e r y s l o w g r o w t h
o f A . f l a v u s . E v e n after 1 0 days o f i n c u b a t i o n , a m a x i m u m
o f o n l y 2 7 m m c o l o n y d i a m e t e r o f A . f l a v u s was r e c o r d e d
w i t h T . harzianum - T H - 1 a s c o m p a r e d w i t h 8 5 m m i n the
c o n t r o l ( T a b l e 1 ) i n d i c a t i n g the p r o d u c t i o n o f n o n - v o l a t i l e
chemicals i n h i b i t o r y to A. flavus g r o w t h by a l l Trichoderma
isolates.
A l l 26 Trichoderma isolates were tested for their tolerance
to c o m m o n seed dressing fungicides, thiram and carbendazim
( B a v i s t i n ® ) f o l l o w i n g p o i s o n e d f o o d t e c h n i q u e . Potato
d e x t r o s e agar w a s a m e n d e d w i t h either c a r b e n d a z i m a t
0 . 0 0 5 , 0 . 0 5 , 1 , 2 , and 10 µg mL - 1 or t h i r a m at 100, 2 0 0 , 500,
1 0 0 0 , a n d 1500 µ g m L - 1 . A l l isolates w e r e sensitive t o the
fungicides at a l l concentrations i n d i c a t i n g that these isolates
w e r e n o t c o m p a t i b l e w i t h the f u n g i c i d e s , a n d thus c a n n o t
be used in c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h these seed dressing fungicides.
S e n s i t i v i t y of Trichoderma isolates to c a r b e n d a z i m has
been reported by Desai a n d Schlosser ( 1 9 9 3 ) . I d e n t i f i c a t i o n
o f Trichoderma isolates w i t h p r o v e n b i o c o n t r o l a b i l i t y
and tolerance to seed dressing fungicides w o u l d be desirable
to u t i l i z e t h e m to c o n t r o l A. flavus i n f e s t a t i o n . Selected
Trichoderma isolates from t h i s s t u d y are b e i n g used in
greenhouse and field experiments to evaluate their b i o c o n t r o l
p o t e n t i a l against a f l a t o x i n c o n t a m i n a t i o n i n g r o u n d n u t .
References
Bell, D . K . , W e l l s , H . D . , and M a r k h a m , C . R . 1982. I n vitro
a n t a g o n i s m o f Trichoderma species against s i x f u n g a l
pathogens. P h y t o p a t h o l o g y 7 2 : 3 7 9 - 3 8 2 .
D e a c o n , J . W . 1976. Studies on Pythium liogandrum, an
aggressive parasite o f o t h e r f u n g i . T r a n s a c t i o n s o f the
B r i t i s h M y c o l o g i c a l Society 66:383.
Dennis, C , and W e b s t e r , J . 1971. a . A n t a g o n i s t i c properties
o f species g r o u p s o f Trichoderma I . T r a n s a c t i o n s o f the
B r i t i s h M y c o l o g i c a l Society 5 7 : 2 5 - 3 9 .
Dennis, C , and W e b s t e r , J . 1971b. A n t a g o n i s t i c properties
o f species g r o u p s o f T r i c h o d e r m a I I . T r a n s a c t i o n s o f the
B r i t i s h M y c o l o g i c a l Society 5 7 : 4 1 - 4 8 .
Desai, S., and Schldsser, E. 1993. C o m p a r a t i v e s e n s i t i v i t y
o f isolates o f Trichoderma spp. t o selected f u n g i c i d e s
in vitro. M e d e d e l i n g e n F a c u l t e i t L a n d b o u w k u n d i g e En
Toegepaste B i o l o g i s c h e W e t e n s c h a p p e n , U n i v e r s i t e i t
Gent 58/3b:1365-1372.
Mycotoxins from Groundnuts M a r k e t e d
in Yemen
Saleha Al-Nahdi (Sana'a University, Republic of
Yemen. Present address: W o r l d Bank Office, Sana'a, PO
Box 18152, Republic of Yemen)
O n e o f the m o s t serious aspects o f the i n v a s i o n o f g r a i n
b y some f u n g i i s the p r o d u c t i o n o f t o x i c secondary m e t a b o lites k n o w n a s m y c o t o x i n s . M a n y a g r i c u l t u r a l c o m m o d i t i e s
a n d t h e i r p r o d u c t s i n c l u d i n g feed have been s h o w n t o b e
c o n t a m i n a t e d b y t h e m . M y c o t o x i n s are h i g h l y t o x i c t o
humans and livestock. Different fungi produce different types
of m y c o t o x i n s , e.g., Aspergillus flavus a n d A. parasiticus
p r o d u c e a f l a t o x i n , a n d A. ochraceous a n d Penicillium
viridicatum p r o d u c e o c h r a t o x i n . G r o u n d n u t s are m o s t
susceptible t o the f u n g i that p r o d u c e a f l a t o x i n .
Surveys f r o m several countries have reported c o n siderable c o n t a m i n a t i o n o f g r o u n d n u t seeds, g r o u n d n u t
c a k e , a n d its f e e d w i t h a f l a t o x i n , o c h r a t o x i n , c i t r i n i n e ,
zearalenone, t r i c h o t h e c e n s , T - 2 t o x i n s , d e o x y n i v a l e n o l
( D O N ) , nivalenol, diacetoxyscirphenol, and penicillic
a c i d . M o s t o f these studies w e r e c o n d u c t e d i n t h e areas
o f outbreaks o f m y c o t o x i c o s e s i n f a r m a n i m a l s o r h u m a n s ,
w h i l e o t h e r representative samples s t u d i e d h a d o b v i o u s
m o l d d a m a g e ( B h a t 1989). M y c o t o x i n c o n t a m i n a t i o n i n
g r o u n d n u t can occur in the f i e l d d u r i n g pre-harvest, harvest,
a n d d u r i n g postharvest h a n d l i n g ( N a h d i 1 9 9 7 ) . I n m a n y
countries, they are able to c o n t r o l the entry of c o n t a m i n a t e d
groundnut i n f o o d chain b y f o l l o w i n g strict regulatory
programs. The m a x i m u m permissible l i m i t of these m y c o t o x i n s
varies from 0 to 100 µg kg - 1 d e p e n d i n g on the c o u n t r y a n d
f o o d s t u f f a n d also w h e t h e r the c o m m o d i t y i s f o r h u m a n o r
a n i m a l c o n s u m p t i o n . M o s t o f the g r o u n d n u t f o r l o c a l c o n s u m p t i o n i n Y e m e n i s i m p o r t e d . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , there are
n o regulatory mechanisms established i n Y e m e n t o p r e v e n t
the e n t r y o f c o n t a m i n a t e d g r o u n d n u t i n f o o d c h a i n . T h e
quarantine laboratories i n the c o u n t r y are neither e q u i p p e d
n o r have t r a i n e d s t a f f t o u n d e r t a k e m y c o t o x i n analysis.
I A N 20, 2000 59
T a b l e 1 . C o n t a m i n a t i o n o f g r o u n d n u t b y f u n g i a n d mycotoxins i n Y e m e n 1 .
M y c o t o x i n level (µg kg - 1 )
Seed infection (%)
Region
AF
AS
F
P
UF
Total
AT
T-2
DON
Sana'a
W S M (I)
China
17
4
2
3
2
28
40
0
0
India
9
9
0
0
0
18
0
0
0
Sudan
3
1
1
2
2
9
0
0
0
9
4
0
3
1
17
0
0
0
0
W S M (L)
Storage (I)
China
4
1
14
4
11
34
0
140
India
11
0
1
1
9
22
0
0
0
Sudan
3
1
10
4
6
24
0
0
10
Storage ( L )
4
3
2
2
3
14
0
0
0
Consumer level (l)
China
0
0
3
20
7
30
0
0
0
India
6
0
0
0
14
20
0
0
0
Sudan
7
0
7
5
7
26
0
0
0
1
3
1
0
23
28
0
0
0
27
4
2
8
9
50
140
0
0
1
0
6
4
11
22
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
20
Consumer level ( L )
Aden
W S M (1)
China
India
8
0
0
0
1
9
9
2
3
4
0
18
10
+
China
9
2
1
1
5
18
0
India
2
3
19
2
5
31
0
0
Sudan
6
11
0
0
3
20
0
0
0
12
6
4
9
3
34
60
0
0
Sudan
W S M (L)
Storage ( I )
Storage ( L )
Consumer level ( I )
China
10
2
9
23
60
0
0
1
7
1
1
1
India
0
0
9
0
0
0
Sudan
8
3
3
0
1
15
20
0
0
0
2
21
7
2
32
0
20
0
China
41
0
2
9
8
60
160
0
0
India
11
0
4
2
4
21
20
0
0
Sudan
21
2
2
5
2
32
20
0
0
10
1
1
1
2
15
40
0
0
0
+
Consumer level ( L )
Hodida
W S M (I)
W S M (L)
Storage ( I )
-
China
6
2
3
3
3
17
0
0
India
15
2
5
0
11
33
20
Sudan
4
0
16
0
9
29
0
0
+
2
0
7
3
6
18
0
0
0
China
24
2
13
2
5
46
40
40
0
India
16
3
2
1
4
26
40
0
0
Sudan
17
8
12
3
5
45
160
0
20
13
0
4
3
8
28
0
0
0
Storage ( L )
0
Consumer level ( I )
Consumer level ( L )
1
60
AF - Aspergillus flavus; AS - Aspergillus spp; F = Fusarium spp; P = Penicillium spp; UF = Unidentified fungi; AT - Aflatoxin; T-2
= T-2 toxin; DON = Deoxynivalenol or vomitoxin; WSM = Wholesale market; I = Imported groundnut; L = Local groundnut; + = Trace.
I A N 20, 2000
T h e first systematic study to estimate m y c o t o x i n c o n t a m i
f o r a f l a t o x i n s ( D e v i e t a L 1999), a n d f o r T - 2 a n d D O N t o x i n s
n a t i o n i n g r a i n s i n Y e m e n w a s u n d e r t a k e n i n 1997 ( N a h d i
the kits supplied by Neogen were used. The positive
1997). I t s h o w e d that m y c o t o x i n c o n t a m i n a t i o n o f grains
samples o f aflatoxins w e r e also tested b y t h i n layer c h r o -
was a widespread p r o b l e m in the country.
matography ( T L C ) method (Pons et al. 1966).
T h e m a i n o b j e c t i v e o f t h i s s t u d y w a s t o c o n d u c t systematic survey of imported and local groundnut for fungi
that produce m y c o t o x i n s , and f o r m y c o t o x i n contamination
in three m a j o r cities in Y e m e n .
Results and discussion
T h e m a j o r i t y o f samples ( 5 8 % ) s h o w e d visual disorder
w i t h 3 0 % o f the s a m p l e s e x c e e d i n g t h e m a x i m u m p e r m i s sible l i m i t ( 1 0 % ) . O f the total samples w i t h m y c o t o x i n
Sample collection
contamination, 4 4 % were imported and 1 4 % were from
S a m p l e s w e r e c o l l e c t e d d u r i n g J a n u a r y - F e b r u a r y 1998
Y e m e n . O f those samples w h i c h exceeded permissible
f r o m (1) the wholesale markets (shops), (2) storage ( w h o l e s a l e
mycotoxin contamination limit, 2 4 % were imported ( 1 1 %
g o d o w n s ) , a n d ( 3 ) r e t a i l shops a t c o n s u m e r s ' l e v e l i n
f r o m Sudan, 8 % f r o m China, and 5 % f r o m India) and 6 %
A d e n , H o d i d a , a n d S a n a ' a ( T a b l e 1). T h e f o r m e r t w o are
w e r e f r o m Y e m e n . Insects w e r e f o u n d i n
t h e m a j o r seaports o f t h e c o u n t r y . G r o u n d n u t i s t r a d e d
s a m p l e s . Insects n o t o n l y c o n t a m i n a t e t h e seeds a n d its
m o s t l y i n t h e f o r m o f seeds i n Y e m e n . A b o u t 8 0 % o f t h e
products by their excretions but also spread other infec-
s a m p l e s w e r e seeds a n d t h e r e m a i n i n g w e r e p o d s .
t i o n s a s t h e y m o v e f r o m i n f e s t e d seeds t o h e a l t h y seeds
Samples were collected using standard sampling techn i q u e s . I n t h e w h o l e s a l e m a r k e t a n d s t o r a g e , t h e area a t
1 6 % of the
w i t h spores o f f u n g i a d h e r i n g t o t h e i r b o d y a n d m o u t h parts.
e a c h site w a s d i v i d e d a r b i t r a r i l y i n t o t h r e e r e p l i c a t i o n s . I n
A l l samples recorded f u n g a l c o n t a m i n a t i o n . T h e c o n -
each r e p l i c a t i o n , a s a m p l e o f seeds o r p o d s w a s c o l l e c t e d
t a m i n a t i o n l e v e l r a n g e d f r o m 9 % t o 6 0 % ( T a b l e 1). T h e
f r o m bags a t d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s , a n d t h e y w e r e m i x e d t o g e t a
average
2 - k g r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s a m p l e f o r each r e p l i c a t i o n . I n t h e
Hodida (30.8%), f o l l o w e d by A d e n (23.4%) and Sana'a
infection
level
was
highest
in
samples from
case o f c o n s u m e r s ' l e v e l , a 2 - k g r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s a m p l e
( 2 2 . 5 % ) . H o d i d a a n d A d e n are t h e m a i n seaports i n t h e
w a s c o l l e c t e d f r o m d i f f e r e n t bags a t r e t a i l s h o p s .
c o u n t r y h a v i n g h i g h relative h u m i d i t y , c o n d u c i v e f o r f u n g a l
g r o w t h . Samples from China showed a h i g h level of c o n t a m i n a t i o n ( 1 7 - 6 0 % ) , f o l l o w e d b y samples f r o m S u d a n ( 9 -
Sample analysis
4 5 % ) , Y e m e n ( 1 4 - 3 4 % ) , and India ( 9 - 3 3 % ) .
V i s u a l e x a m i n a t i o n . Samples were e x a m i n e d visually for
a n d Pencillium s p p , a n d o t h e r u n i d e n t i f i e d s p e c i e s ) w e r e
M a n y f u n g i (A.
flavus,
A.
versicolor,
Fusarium s p p ,
external damage ( b o t h p h y s i c a l and b i o l o g i c a l ) , presence
isolated f r o m the samples. These f u n g i under suitable
o f f o r e i g n m a t e r i a l a n d insects, a n d i m m a t u r e , s h r i v e l e d ,
e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s ( s u c h a s seed m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t
a n d u n h e a l t h y seeds. T h e y w e r e s c o r e d f o r v i s u a l d i s o r -
> 12%, temperature > 2 7 ° C , and relative h u m i d i t y 7 0 - 8 0 % )
der/damage as f o l l o w s : l o w 0 - 5 % , moderate 5 - 7 % , high
c a n p r o d u c e m y c o t o x i n s . M o s t o f t h e m y c o t o x i n s are p r o -
7 - 1 0 % , a n d v e r y h i g h > 1 0 % seeds s h o w i n g v a r i o u s t y p e s
duced before the f u n g i can be visually detected. T h e
o f damage.
d o m i n a n t f u n g a l species w a s A . flavus, w h i c h i n f e c t e d
3 7 . 4 % o f the samples, f o l l o w e d b y other f u n g i ( 2 1 . 8 %
Fungal contamination.
The fungal contamination of
seeds w a s estimated u s i n g agar plate technique. O n e h u n d r e d
s a m p l e s i n f e c t e d ) a n d Fusarium
spp ( 1 8 . 9 % samples
infected).
m a t u r e seeds f r o m e a c h s a m p l e w e r e s e l e c t e d a n d s u r f a c e
M y c o t o x i n s were detected i n 5 2 % o f the samples c o l l e c t e d
sterilized w i t h 1 0 % Chlorox® ( 5 . 2 5 % sodium hypochlo-
in the c o u n t r y . T h e level ranged from < 1 0 ug kg-1 to as
rite). A f t e r three rinses w i t h sterile d i s t i l l e d water, the
h i g h as 160 µg kg - 1 ( T a b l e 1). M y c o t o x i n s w e r e d e t e c t e d in
seeds w e r e p l a t e d a s e p t i c a l l y o n p o t a t o d e x t r o s e s t r e p t o -
2 5 % o f the samples f r o m Sana'a. A l l the samples w e r e
m y c i n agar m e d i u m i n 9 - c m diameter petri dishes. A f t e r
imported ( 1 6 % f r o m China and 9 % f r o m Sudan). I n A d e n ,
i n c u b a t i o n f o r 5 - 7 d a y s a t 2 5 ° C , t h e n u m b e r o f seeds
5 8 % o f the samples were contaminated b y m y c o t o x i n s .
c o l o n i z e d by f u n g i was recorded and the f u n g i identified.
A m o n g these, 4 1 % w e r e i m p o r t e d ( 1 7 % each f r o m C h i n a
M y c o t o x i n estimation. E n z y m e - l i n k e d immunosorbent assay
M y c o t o x i n s w e r e detected i n 6 7 % o f t h e samples c o l l e c t e d
( E L I S A ) kits were procured from Neogen Corporation,
f r o m H o d i d a . O f these, 5 8 % o f t h e s a m p l e s w e r e i m p o r t e d .
U S A a n d l C R l S A T , I n d i a . T h e I C R 1 S A T m e t h o d w a s used
S a m p l e s f r o m a l l the three c o u n t r i e s ( 2 5 % samples o f I n d i a
a n d Sudan and 7 % f r o m I n d i a ) a n d 1 7 % w e r e o f l o c a l o r i g i n .
I A N 20, 2000
61
a n d 1 7 % each o f S u d a n a n d C h i n a ) w e r e p o s i t i v e f o r
mycotoxins.
M y c o t o x i n s are v e r y stable i n nature. B o i l i n g a n d
r o a s t i n g d o n o t destroy t h e m , i f t h e y are present i n seeds.
G r o u n d n u t s i n Y e m e n are c o n s u m e d i n v a r i o u s f o r m s :
roasted n u t s f o r e x t r a c t i o n o f o i l a n d g r o u n d n u t cake a s
a n i m a l feed. I n r u r a l areas, w h e r e o i l i s extracted f o l l o w i n g
the t r a d i t i o n a l m e t h o d , m y c o t o x i n s are present in u n r e f i n e d
o i l . Because o f seed c o n t a m i n a t i o n a n d presence o f t o x i n s
i n g r o u n d n u t cake, w h i c h i s used a s a n i m a l feed, a f l a t o x i n s c a n enter i n t o h u m a n f o o d c h a i n . C o n s u m p t i o n o f
a f l a t o x i n - c o n t a m i n a t e d f o o d i s suspected t o b e o n e o f the
reasons f o r i n c r e a s i n g i n c i d e n c e o f l i v e r cancer i n Y e m e n .
I t i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t that necessary h u m a n resource a n d
i n f r a s t r u c t u r e f a c i l i t i e s are d e v e l o p e d i n the c o u n t r y t o
screen f o r m y c o t o x i n - c o n t a m i n a t i o n o f g r o u n d n u t s i n
foods a n d feeds.
A c k n o w l e d g m e n t . T h a n k s are d u e to D r s S N N i g a m a n d
D V R R e d d y , I C R I S A T , I n d i a for r e v i e w i n g the manuscript
a n d t o the W o r l d H e a l t h O r g a n i z a t i o n ( W H O ) f o r f i n a n c i a l
support.
References
B h a t , R . V . 1989. R i s k t o h u m a n h e a l t h associated w i t h
consumption of groundnuts contaminated w i t h anatoxins. Pages 1 9 - 2 8 i n A f l a t o x i n c o n t a m i n a t i o n o f g r o u n d n u t : p r o c e e d i n g s o f the I n t e r n a t i o n a l W o r k s h o p , 6 - 9 O c t
1 9 8 7 , I C R I S A T Center, I n d i a . P a t a n c h e r u , 5 0 2 3 2 4 ,
A n d h r a Pradesh, I n d i a : I n t e r n a t i o n a l C r o p s Research I n stitute f o r t h e S e m i - A r i d T r o p i c s .
D e v i , K . T . , M a y o , M . A . , R e d d y , K . L . N . , Delfosse, P . ,
R e d d y , G . , R e d d y , S.V., and R e d d y , D . V . R 1999. Product i o n and characterization of m o n o c l o n a l antibodies for
a f l a t o x i n B 1 . Letters i n A p p l i e d M i c r o b i o l o g y 2 9 : 2 8 4 - 2 8 8 .
N a h d i , S . 1997. I n v e s t i g a t i o n o n m y c o t o x i n s a n d f u n g a l
contamination in domestic and imported food and agricult u r a l g r a i n s i n Y e m e n . R e p o r t N o . 1 3 1 . Sana'a, Y e m e n :
R o y a l Netherlands Embassy.
Pons, W . A . , C u c u l u , A . F . , L e e , L . S . , F r a n z , A . O . , and
G o l d b l a t t , L . A . 1966. D e t e c t i o n o f aflatoxins i n agricultural
p r o d u c t s : U s e o f aqueous acetone a n d e x t r a c t i o n . J o u r n a l
o f the Association o f O f f i c i a l A g r i c u l t u r a l Chemists
49:554-562.
62 I A N 20, 2000
Entomology
Survey of G r o u n d n u t L e a f M i n e r and its
N a t u r a l Enemies i n T a m i l N a d u , I n d i a
C M u t h i a h and A Abdul Kareem (Coconut Research
Station, Veppankulam 614 906, Thanjavur District, Tamil
Nadu, India)
T h e g r o u n d n u t l e a f m i n e r Aproaerema modicella is o n e
o f the most i m p o r t a n t and w i d e l y d i s t r i b u t e d foliage feeders
o f g r o u n d n u t c r o p i n A s i a . I t affects t h e g r o w t h a n d y i e l d
o f the plants, e s p e c i a l l y i n r a i n f e d g r o u n d n u t . L o g i s w a r a n
a n d M o h a n a s u n d a r a m ( 1 9 8 5 ) r e p o r t e d p o d y i e l d losses o f
> 5 0 % due t o l e a f m i n e r .
I n the present s t u d y , a s u r v e y w a s c o n d u c t e d i n s i x
major rainfed g r o u n d n u t - g r o w i n g districts o f T a m i l N a d u
in India, viz., V i l l u p u r a m , Tiruvannamalai, Chengalpet,
Erode, Salem, a n d D h a r m a p u r i . T h e survey was c o n d u c t e d
d u r i n g 1996 r a i n y season ( k h a r i f ) at 4 0 - 6 0 days after s o w i n g
t o assess the extent o f l e a f m i n e r i n c i d e n c e , d a m a g e , a n d
its natural enemies. T h e survey was c o n d u c t e d in 7 b l o c k s
in each district. T h e incidence was assessed on 10 r a n d o m l y
selected plants a n d m e a n larvae p l a n t - 1 w a s c a l c u l a t e d . I n
each l o c a t i o n 2 0 larvae w e r e e x a m i n e d t o w o r k o u t the
percent p a r a s i t i s m . T h e 9 5 % c o n f i d e n c e i n t e r v a l f o r m e a n
a n d c o e f f i c i e n t o f v a r i a t i o n ( % ) w e r e c a l c u l a t e d f o r the
mean larvae p l a n t 1 , leaflet damage ( % ) , a n d parasitism ( % ) .
T h e p a r a s i t i z e d larvae w e r e c o l l e c t e d , o b s e r v e d f o r t h e
emergence o f natural enemies, a n d i d e n t i f i e d . S i m i l a r l y the
eggs o f l e a f m i n e r w e r e also c o l l e c t e d a n d o b s e r v e d f o r
the e m e r g e n c e o f n a t u r a l enemies.
T h e s u r v e y results s h o w e d that the o c c u r r e n c e o f t h e
pest a n d its parasitoids was m a x i m u m in D h a r m a p u r i d i s t r i c t
( T a b l e 1 ) w i t h m e a n percent leaflet d a m a g e o f 9 0 . 1 ± 5.0.
T h e mean larvae p l a n t - 1 was 11.3 ± 2.7 w h i l e the m e a n percent
p a r a s i t i s m w a s 2 8 . 1 ± 5 . 0 . T h e percentage o f p a r a s i t i s m
w a s m o r e w h e n the a v a i l a b i l i t y o f host larvae w a s m o r e .
S i m i l a r results w e r e r e p o r t e d e a r l i e r b y S h e k h a r a p p a a n d
Patil ( 1 9 9 0 ) . The m a x i m u m o f 1 0 0 % leaflet damage and
17.0 larvae p l a n t - 1 w a s o b s e r v e d i n A t h a n o o r v i l l a g e o f
Indoor b l o c k in Dharmapuri district. This was f o l l o w e d by
T h i r u v a n n a m a l a i d i s t r i c t w h i c h r e c o r d e d a m e a n leaflet
damage o f 6 4 . 5 ± 8 . 0 a n d m e a n larvae p l a n t - 1 o f 3.8 ± 1.5. T h e
leaflet d a m a g e a n d l a r v a l p o p u l a t i o n e s t i m a t e d e a r l i e r
w e r e 2 0 - 5 5 % (Jai R a o a n d S i n d a g i 1 9 7 4 ) a n d 0 . 0 8 - 0 . 8
larva p l a n t 1 respectively ( K h a n and Raodeo 1987).
T h e s t u d y also r e v e a l e d that the l a r v a e of A. modicella
w e r e parasitized by 11 species of hymenopterous parasitoids
( T a b l e 2 ) . T h e s e i n c l u d e d t h r e e b r a c o n i d s , Chelonus sp,
the leaf m i n e r larvae in one generation. A m o n g the 12
Avga
parasitoids i d e n t i f i e d the a c t i v i t y o f the p u p a l parasitoid
chaospes,
Stenomesius
and
Apanteles
japonicus
ichneumonid,
sp;
and
Temelucha
two
Tetrastichus
sp;
eulophids,
sp;
one e u r y t o m i d ,
one
Chelonus s p was m a x i m u m ( 2 6 . 0 % ) f o l l o w e d b y parasitoids
Eurytoma
B wittei ( 2 0 . 0 % ) , a n d G indicus ( 1 6 . 7 % ) . Y a d a v e t a l . ( 1 9 8 7 )
sp, one p t e r o m a l i d , Pteromalus sp; one e u p e l m i d , Eupelums
e a r l i e r r e p o r t e d t h a t p a r a s i t i s m by Apanteles sp w a s 1.02
s p ; o n e b e t h y l i d , Goniozus indicus', a n d o n e c h a l c i d l a r v a l
to 2 7 . 2 7 % , Goniozus sp w a s 0.54 to 5 0 . 0 % , a n d Stenomesius
parasite,
s p w a s 0.2 t o 7 9 . 1 6 % a t A n a n d , G u j a r a t , I n d i a . F r o m o u r
Brachymeria
wittei.
The
eggs
of A.
modicella
w e r e p a r a s i t i z e d b y a n e g g p a r a s i t o i d Trichogramma sp.
study it is evident that the g r o u n d n u t l e a f m i n e r damage
S h a n o w e r et al. ( 1 9 9 3 ) reported nine p r i m a r y and seven
ranged from 11.0% to 9 0 . 1 % in major groundnut-growing
secondary parasitoids as responsible to reduce 5 0 % of
districts o f T a m i l N a d u . The parasitoid complex o f leaf
miner include 10 larval parasitoids, one p u p a l parasitoid,
T a b l e 1. Occurrence of leaf miner in m a j o r groundnutg r o w i n g d i s t r i c t s o f T a m i l N a d u , I n d i a , r a i n y season
1996.
a n d o n e e g g p a r a s i t o i d , w h i c h are a c t i v e i n t h e g r o u n d n u t - g r o w i n g areas o f T a m i l N a d u . T h e r o l e o f p a r a s i t o i d s
needs t o b e c o n s i d e r e d w h i l e m a k i n g d e c i s i o n s o n p l a n t
protection.
Mean
Mean
Mean
leaflet damage
number o f
(%)
larvae plant -1
(%)
Thiruvannamalai
64.5 ± 8.0
3.8 ± 1.5
18.0 ± 9.3
Dharmapuri
90.1 ± 5.0
11.3 ± 2.7
28.1 ± 5.0
District
parasitiism
References
J a i R a o , K., and S i n d a g i , S.S. 1974. S c r e e n i n g o f varieties
Erode
11.0 ± 2.9
0.8 ± 0.3
1.3 ± 1.6
Salem
16.2 ± 0.4
0.8 ± 0.4
3.3 ± 3.1
Chengalpet
45.8 ± 9.6
3.5 ± 0.8
11.7 ± 2.1
subsecivella
Villupuram
54.9 ± 7.9
3.8 ± 1.0
13.0 ± 4.5
J o u r n a l o f A g r i c u l t u r a l Science 8 : 1 3 3 - 1 3 7 .
for
resistance
to
Zell.
groundnut
(Lepidoptera:
leafminer
Stomopteryx
Gelechiidae).
Mysore
K h a n , M L , and R a o d e o , A . K . 1987. Seasonal incidence o f
groundnut leafminer A. modicella (Lepidoptera: G e l e c h i i d a e ) .
Table
2.
Natural
enemies
of Aproaerema
modicella
P a n j a b r a o K r i s h i V i d y a p e e t h Research J o u r n a l 1 1 : 9 3 - 9 6 .
Deventer i d e n t i f i e d i n g r o u n d n u t - g r o w i n g regions o f
T a m i l N a d u , India.
L o g i s w a r a n , G . , and M o h a n a s u n d a r a m , M . 1985. Studies
Parasitism
Family
Parasitoid
Braconidae
Chelonus
(%)
26.0
sp
Avga chaospes Nixon
Apanteles
Eulophidae
Stenomesius
japonicus
incidence of groundnut leaf m i n e r A
4.0
sp
Madras
S h a n o w e r , T . G . , W i g h t m a n J . A . , and G u t i e r r e z , A . P .
1993. B i o l o g y and c o n t r o l o f the g r o u n d n u t l e a f m i n e r
Aproaerema
Ashmead.
Tetrastichus
modicella.
A g r i c u l t u r a l Journal 7 2 : 6 2 9 - 3 2 .
1.3
1.3
sp
o n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n l i g h t t r a p catches a n d f i e l d
2.7
modicella ( L e p i d o p t e r a :
Gelechiidae).
Crop
Protection 1 2 : 3 - 1 0 .
3.7
Ichneumonidae
Temelucha
Eurytomidae
Eurytoma
Pteromalidae
Pteromalus
Eupelmidae
Eupelmus
sp
Bethylidae
Goniozus
indicus
sp
sp
5.3
sp
4.3
1.3
Brachymeria
Schmitz.
wittei
Trichogramrnatidae
Trichogrammasp
of
the
groundnut
leafminer.
Aproaerema
modicella
(Dev.). J o u r n a l o f B i o l o g i c a l C o n t r o l 4 : 5 0 - 5 6 .
16.7
Y a d a v , D.V., Patel, R R , and P a t e l , R C . 1987. N a t u r a l
Ashmead.
Chalcididae
S h e k h a r a p p a , S., and P a t i l , B . V . 1990. Parasitoid c o m p l e x
20.0
10.3
enemies
of
the
groundnut
leafminer
Aproaerema
modicella (Devcnter) a n d t h e i r i m p a c t o n i t s i n f e s t a t i o n i n
A n a n d . Gujarat A g r i c u l t u r a l U n i v e r s i t y Research Journal
13:3-16.
I A N 20, 2000
63
G r o u n d n u t L e a f M i n e r Aproaerema
modicella: A N e w Pest in Eastern
Districts of Uganda
W W Page 1 , G Epieru 2 , F M Kimmins 1 , C BusoloBulafu 2 , and P W Nalyongo 2 (1. Natural Resources
Institute, Chatham, Kent M E 4 4 T B , U K ; 2. Serere A g r i cultural and A n i m a l Production Research Institute
( S A A R I ) , PO Box, Soroti, Uganda)
I n the Teso f a r m i n g system o f eastern U g a n d a , g r o u n d n u t
is g r o w n as a m a j o r f o o d a n d cash c r o p . Recent needs
assessment exercises a n d s o c i o e c o n o m i c s u r v e y s from
t h i s r e g i o n h a v e i n d i c a t e d that the m a j o r pest/disease
c o n s t r a i n t o f g r o u n d n u t i s g r o u n d n u t rosette disease
caused by groundnut rosette virus ( G R V ) w h i c h is transmitted
by the a p h i d vector, Aphis craccivora Koch. Research on
the d e p l o y m e n t o f v i r u s a n d v e c t o r resistant varieties has
been in progress since 1998 by the Serere A g r i c u l t u r a l and
A n i m a l P r o d u c t i o n Research Institute ( S A A R I ) , U g a n d a i n
c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h the N a t u r a l Resources I n s t i t u t e ( N R I ) ,
U K a n d I C R I S A T , M a l a w i . D u r i n g these studies, a n e w
pest, a g r o u n d n u t l e a f m i n e r , has been o b s e r v e d to cause
s i g n i f i c a n t d a m a g e t o g r o u n d n u t s a n d farmers i n the r e g i o n h a v e r e p o r t e d t h a t i t c a n result i n severe c r o p loss.
T h i s short r e p o r t describes w h a t i s k n o w n s o far a b o u t
t h e n e w pest i n the T e s o s y s t e m .
S p e c i m e n s o f the l e a f m i n e r c o l l e c t e d i n S o r o t i D i s t r i c t
o f U g a n d a d u r i n g September 1998 w e r e recently i d e n t i f i e d
by the B r i t i s h M u s e u m ( N a t u r a l H i s t o r y ) , as b e i n g
Aproaerema modicella Deventcr (Lepidoptera: G e l e c h i i d a e ) .
T h i s species has o n l y been r e p o r t e d t o date i n S o u t h a n d
Southeast A s i a a n d is r e g a r d e d as the m o s t serious pest
o f g r o u n d n u t i n I n d i a ( A m i n 1983, S h a n o w e r e t al. 1993).
A s far a s w e c a n ascertain t h i s i s t h e f i r s t r e c o r d o f t h i s
species i n A f r i c a a l t h o u g h there h a v e been recent reports
o f the pest a p p e a r i n g i n M a l a w i i n A p r i l 2 0 0 0 ( J M L e n n e ,
I C R I S A T , personal c o m m u n i c a t i o n ) . Therefore i n f o r m a t i o n
o n t h e appearance a n d p e r c e i v e d i n c i d e n c e o f t h e l e a f
m i n e r i n the area f r o m l o c a l f a r m e r s , a g r i c u l t u r a l o f f i c e r s ,
a n d scientists was collected to ascertain its first appearance
a n d r e l a t i v e i m p o r t a n c e i n the r e g i o n .
L e a f m i n e r d a m a g e w a s f i r s t seen a n d reported i n K u m i
D i s t r i c t ( F i g . 1 ) i n the first p l a n t i n g season o f 1997 ( M a r c h J u l y ) a n d w a s also r e p o r t e d later d u r i n g t h e s e c o n d seas o n ( S e p t e m b e r 1 9 9 7 - J a n u a r y 1998). I t i s u n c e r t a i n y e t
h o w w i d e s p r e a d the first outbreaks w e r e but none w e r e rec o r d e d i n o t h e r districts. E v e r y b o d y questioned i n a l l the
d i s t r i c t s v i s i t e d agree that t h e l e a f m i n e r w a s n e v e r seen
b e f o r e t h i s date. A n e x a m p l e i s a f a r m e r i n S o r o t i D i s t r i c t ,
64 I A N 20, 2000
M r O b a d i a O k i r i n g , w h o w a s a n e n t o m o l o g i s t f o r 3 0 years
a t S A A R I a n d h a d n o t seen t h e l e a f m i n e r s b e f o r e . I n t h e
f i r s t a n d second seasons o f 1998 there w e r e l a r g e o u t breaks o f l e a f m i n e r s c a u s i n g c o n s i d e r a b l e d a m a g e a n d
there w a s a n increased use o f insecticides ( p r e d o m i n a n t l y
dimethoate) i n a n attempt t o reduce the p r o b l e m . T h e sprays
w e r e p r e v i o u s l y used t o c o n t r o l t h e a p h i d v e c t o r o f G R V
o r c o t t o n pests. M a n y f a r m e r s h a d c o m p l e t e c r o p losses
due t o m i n e r damage d u r i n g this p e r i o d . I n 1998 l e a f m i n e r
was reported from K u m i and Soroti Districts ( f u l l extent
n o t k n o w n y e t ) a n d i n the southeastern p a r t o f K a t a k w i
D i s t r i c t ( 4 subcounties b u t n o t elsewhere) a n d the n o r t h e r n
part o f Pallisa D i s t r i c t , b o t h o f the latter areas b e i n g adjacent
t o K u m i D i s t r i c t ( F i g . 1). T h e r e w e r e calls f r o m farmers t o
f i n d o t h e r w a y s o f c o n t r o l l i n g t h e pest s u c h a s b r e e d i n g
f o r resistance. I s o l a t e d occurrences o f l e a f m i n e r d a m a g e
w e r e reported i n b o t h seasons i n the above districts d u r i n g
1999 a l t h o u g h the o v e r a l l d i s t r i b u t i o n i s n o t k n o w n . I n
s o m e cases the d a m a g e t o f i e l d s w a s severe ( W . W . Page,
N R I , personal observation). M b a l e D i s t r i c t A g r i c u l t u r a l
O f f i c e h a d n o t c o m e across t h e g r o u n d n u t l e a f m i n e r
although some subcounties have h i g h g r o u n d n u t
production.
Surveys to collect groundnut leaf m i n e r in K u m i and
S o r o t i D i s t r i c t s d u r i n g the f i r s t g r o w i n g season o f 2 0 0 0
( M a y ) s h o w e d a l o w incidence o f larvae. T h i s was p r o b a b l y
because the oldest g r o u n d n u t fields w e r e o n l y j u s t flowering
due t o late p l a n t i n g i n m i d - t o late A p r i l . T h i s w o u l d b e t o o
early t o f i n d large n u m b e r s o f l e a f m i n e r s a s h i g h n u m b e r s
are n o r m a l l y seen after f l o w e r i n g and w h e n p e g g i n g has beg u n . F a r m e r s h a v e also r e p o r t e d that a d u l t p o p u l a t i o n s
b u i l d u p after a p r o l o n g e d d r y s p e l l d u r i n g the g r o w i n g
season. B e t w e e n M a y a n d J u l y , isolated o c c u r r e n c e s o f
l e a f m i n e r have been reported f r o m K a t a k w i and K u m i D i s t r i c t s a n d large n u m b e r s o f m o t h s h a v e b e e n c a u g h t i n a
p h e r o m o n e trap at S A A R I although there have been no serious outbreaks o f the pest i n the area.
T h e status o f t h i s pest i s u n c e r t a i n i n o t h e r d i s t r i c t s i n
Uganda (i.e., T o r o r o , Busia, Iganga Districts and further
w e s t w a r d s ) . B u t experience o f g r o w i n g g r o u n d n u t i n these
o t h e r areas suggests that the pest m a y n o t be present a n d
c e r t a i n l y has n o t been r e c o r d e d as c a u s i n g p r o b l e m s .
T h e sudden appearance o f g r o u n d n u t l e a f m i n e r i n t h e
eastern d i s t r i c t s o f U g a n d a poses a n u m b e r o f q u e s t i o n s :
( 1 ) H a v e g r o u n d n u t l e a f miners been present i n l o w n u m b e r s
w i t h i n U g a n d a a n d changes i n f a r m i n g p r a c t i c e s o r
weather encouraged these recent outbreaks or is the sudden
appearance due t o a c c i d e n t a l i n t r o d u c t i o n ? ( 2 ) W i l l t h e
l e a f m i n e r b e able t o m a i n t a i n n u m b e r s t o r e m a i n a pest?
( 3 ) T h e k n o w l e d g e g a t h e r e d s o far o n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f
t h e pest suggests t h a t i t m a y b e c o n f i n e d a t present t o a
Kumi District
Soroti District
Pallisa District
Katakwi District
Mbale District
Suggested range
of groundnut
leaf miner
0
Figure
100
200
300
Approx. km
1. M a p of Uganda showing the districts where information on groundnut leaf miner was gathered and an
approximation of its range based on current knowledge.
p a r t i c u l a r area ( s u g g e s t e d i n F i g . 1). I s t h i s c o r r e c t ? I t i s
t h e a p h i d v e c t o r s ( o f t e n f o u r s p r a y s i n a season). T h e
therefore important to identify m o r e precisely the distribution
appearance o f t h e l e a f m i n e r i n the area n o w p r o d u c e s a
using p h e r o m o n e traps (Ranga Rao et al. 1993, C o r k and H a l l
n e w c o n s t r a i n t w h i c h , a t present, c a n o n l y b e c o n t r o l l e d
1998), v i s u a l surveys, and f a r m e r / a g r i c u l t u r a l o f f i c e surveys
by i n d i v i d u a l farmers using insecticides. M a n y subsis-
b o t h w i t h i n the k n o w n area a s w e l l a s e l s e w h e r e i n
tence f a r m e r s i n this f a r m i n g s y s t e m are u n a b l e t o a f f o r d
U g a n d a . O n c e these a n s w e r s h a v e b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d i t
these c h e m i c a l s a n d t h e r e f o r e the e m e r g e n c e o f t h i s pest
m a y be possible to i d e n t i f y w h e t h e r this pest has the p o t e n -
m a y become an important factor in the sustainability of
t i a l t o s p r e a d e l s e w h e r e a n d w h e t h e r i t can b e controlled o r
g r o u n d n u t p r o d u c t i o n f o r s m a l l h o l d e r producers in the
eradicated in order to stop further spread.
Teso system.
O n e o f t h e i m p o r t a n t features o f i n t r o d u c i n g G R V a n d
v e c t o r resistant
varieties
of groundnut
into the
Teso
We w o u l d be grateful for any reports of groundnut leaf
m i n e r (A. modicella) b e i n g i d e n t i f i e d i n d i v i d u a l l y or causing
f a r m i n g s y s t e m w a s t o release f a r m e r s f r o m t h e c o s t l y a n d
d a m a g e i n A f r i c a s o t h a t t h e status o f t h i s pest c a n b e
labor increasing w o r k o f spraying w i t h insecticides t o k i l l
determined.
I A N 20, 2000
65
References
A m i n , P . W . 1983. M a j o r f i e l d insect pests o f g r o u n d n u t i n
I n d i a a n d associated c r o p losses. I n d i a n J o u r n a l o f E n t o mology 2:337-344.
C o r k , A . , and H a l l , D . R . 1998. A p p l i c a t i o n o f p h e r o m o n e s
f o r c r o p pest m a n a g e m e n t i n t h e I n d i a n s u b - c o n t i n e n t .
Journal o f Asia-Pacific E n t o m o l o g y 1:35-49.
Ranga Roa, G . V . , Wightman, J.A., Ranga Rao, D . V . ,
R a m e s w a r R a o , V . , a n d H a l l , D . R 1993. O p t i m i s a t i o n o f
p h e r o m o n e traps f o r the g r o u n d n u t l e a f m i n e r , Aproarema
modicella (Deventer) ( L e p i d o p t e r a : G e l e c h i i d a e ) . J o u r n a l
o f Plant Protection i n the Tropics 10:260-266.
Shanower, T . G . , W i g h t m a n , J . A . , and G u t i e r r e z , A . P .
1993. B i o l o g y a n d c o n t r o l o f the g r o u n d n u t l e a f m i n e r ,
Aproaerema
modicella
(Deventer)
(Lepidoptera:
Gelechiidae). C r o p Protection 12:3-10.
Occurrence o f G r o u n d n u t L e a f M i n e r i n
Northern M a l a w i
P Subrahmanyam 1 , A J Chiyembekeza 1 , and G V Ranga
Rao 2 (1. International Crops Research Institute for the
S e m i - A r i d Tropics ( I C R I S A T ) , PO B o x 1096, L i l o n g w e ,
M a l a w i ; 2 . I C R I S A T , Patancheru 5 0 2 3 2 4 , Andhra
Pradesh, India)
A n o u t b r e a k o f l e a f m i n e r ( A p r o a e r e m a modicella
Deventer) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) on g r o u n d n u t (Arachis
hypogaea) was noticed in K a r o n g a A g r i c u l t u r a l D e v e l o p m e n t
Division ( A D D ) i n northern M a l a w i i n A p r i l 2000. L e a f
m i n e r infestation was observed in a l l 17 farmers' fields
s u r v e y e d i n K a s o w a , B a k a , I p y a n a , a n d L u p e m b e areas;
h o w e v e r , t h e pest w a s v e r y severe a n d d e s t r u c t i v e ( > 5
m i n e s p e r leaflet) o n l y i n K a s o w a area. A f f e c t e d g r o u n d n u t
f i e l d s s h o w e d a b u r n t appearance f r o m a distance d u e to
s h r i v e l i n g a n d desiccation o f leaves ( F i g . 1). M i l d infestation
w a s a l s o o b s e r v e d o n p i g e o n p e a ( C a j a n u s cajan) g r o w n
as m i x e d crop in groundnut fields. L e a f miner was not
observed on other legumes such as c o m m o n bean
(Phaseolus
vulgaris),
bambara
groundnut
(Vigna
subterranea), a n d c o w p e a ( V i g n a mguiculata). I n f e s t e d
g r o u n d n u t p l a n t samples w e r e c o l l e c t e d f r o m f a r m e r s '
fields in K a s o w a and brought to the laboratory for investigation.
E x a m i n a t i o n o f i n f e s t e d leaves r e v e a l e d t h e presence
o f s i n g l e s h i n y w h i t e eggs ( 0 . 5 - 0 . 7 m m l o n g ) o n t h e l o w e r
66 I A N 20, 2000
side o f the leaflets a n d o n p e t i o l e s . D u r i n g t h e e a r l y
stages o f infestation, s m a l l b l i s t e r - l i k e m i n e s w e r e o b s e r v e d
o n t h e u p p e r surface o f t h e leaflets near t h e m i d r i b d u e t o
feeding of mesophyll between upper and lower epidermis.
W h e n the m i n e s w e r e s p l i t o p e n e d , m i n u t e y e l l o w i s h g r e e n l a r v a e w i t h b l a c k head, u s u a l l y o n e l a r v a p e r m i n e ,
w e r e seen i n s i d e . A s t h e f e e d i n g a d v a n c e d , the size o f t h e
m i n e s increased a n d t h e leaflets b e c a m e deep b r o w n ,
r o l l e d , and dried u p prematurely ( F i g . 2). W e b b i n g o f the
leaflets w a s seen i n a d v a n c e d stages o f i n f e s t a t i o n , b u t
w a s n o t v e r y severe. M a t u r e d l a r v a e w e r e 5 - 7 m m l o n g
a n d p u p a t e d w i t h i n t h e w e b b e d leaflets. M o t h s w e r e
grayish and small ( 7 - 9 m m long).
I n K a r o n g a A D D , g r o u n d n u t s are c u l t i v a t e d b o t h d u r i n g
t h e r a i n y season ( f r o m J a n u a r y t o A p r i l , u n d e r r a i n f e d
c o n d i t i o n s ) and d u r i n g the off-season [ ( f r o m June t o
O c t o b e r / N o v e m b e r , o n r e s i d u a l m o i s t u r e after l o w l a n d
r i c e ( O r y z a sativa), s u p p l e m e n t e d by o c c a s i o n a l s h o w e r s ]
p r e d o m i n a n t l y a l o n g the S o n g w e r i v e r b o r d e r i n g T a n z a n i a ,
the K y u n g u R i v e r V a l l e y , a n d K a s a n t h a V a l l e y . T h e shortduration Spanish type M a l i m b a ( l o c a l l y k n o w n as K a s a w a y a )
is the most predominant groundnut variety g r o w n in b o t h
c r o p seasons. T h e p r a c t i c e o f c o n t i n u o u s c u l t i v a t i o n o f
g r o u n d n u t has b e e n i m p l i c a t e d t o c o n t r i b u t e t o s u r v i v a l
a n d p e r p e t u a t i o n o f diseases s u c h a s r u s t ( P u c c i n i a
arachidis) a n d rosette ( C h i y e m b e k e z a a n d S u b r a h m a n y a m
1995). D u r i n g the surveys conducted i n Karonga A D D i n
the off-season o f 1993 ( b y S u b r a h m a n y a m a n d N y i r e n d a )
a n d i n the r a i n y season o f 1994 ( C h i y e m b e k e z a a n d
S u b r a h m a n y a m 1995) a n d i n o t h e r parts o f t h e c o u n t r y i n
1986/87 ( W i g h t m a n and W i g h t m a n 1994), a n u m b e r of
a r t h r o p o d s o i l pests i n c l u d i n g w h i t e grubs (scarabeid larvae,
p r e d o m i n a n t l y Schizonycha spp a n d Anomala spp), termites
(species
of Ancistrotermes,
Hodotermes,
Odontotermes,
Macrotermes,
Microtermes,
and
Pseudoacanthotermes),
w i r e w o r m s ( e l a t e r i d s ) , false w i r e w o r m s ( t e n e b r i o n i d s ) ,
d o r y l i n e ants ( D o r y l u s sp), Hilda patruelis ( H o m o p t e r a :
Tettigometridae)
and
mealy
bugs
(Homoptera:
P s e u d o c o c c i d a e ) , a n d f o l i a g e feeders s u c h as a p h i d s
{Aphis
craccivora),
jassids
(cicadellid),
Spodoptera
( p r o b a b l y littoralis), w e e v i l s (especially Systoles sp), a n d
flea beetles have been r e c o r d e d . S o i l pests are m o r e serious
a n d e c o n o m i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t t h a n f o l i a g e feeders i n
M a l a w i ( W i g h t m a n a n d W i g h t m a n , 1 9 9 4 ) . I t appears t h a t
there i s n o p u b l i s h e d r e c o r d o f the occurrence o f g r o u n d n u t
l e a f m i n e r i n M a l a w i . T h e practice o f c o n t i n u o u s c u l t i v a t i o n
o f g r o u n d n u t i n K a r o n g a A D D m a y b e a c o n t r i b u t i n g factor
f o r t h e o u t b r e a k o f l e a f m i n e r i n these areas o f M a l a w i .
F u r t h e r studies are r e q u i r e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e seasonal
occurrence, distribution, host range, y i e l d losses, a n d b i o l o g y
of groundnut leaf miner.
Figure 1. Extensive damage to groundnut foliage due to leaf
miner infestation.
Figure 2. M i n i n g of groundnut leaf surface due to leaf
miner infestation.
G r o u n d n u t l e a f m i n e r has v e r y l i m i t e d host range i n
legumes. Soybean (Glycine max), groundnut, and p i g e o n p e a
are the m o s t p r e f e r r e d hosts. G r o u n d n u t l e a f m i n e r has
been reported i n several countries i n A s i a ( C h i n a , Indonesia,
K a m p u c h e a , Laos, M a l a y s i a , M y a n m a r , Pakistan, the
Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Vietnam). It is an
i m p o r t a n t pest i n eastern a n d s o u t h e r n A s i a ( W i g h t m a n
and Ranga Rao 1994). In recent years, leaf miner was observed
t o cause considerable damage t o g r o u n d n u t crop i n U g a n d a
(P.J.A. v a n der M e r w e a n d J . M . L e n n e , I C R I S A T , personal
communication). However, we are not aware of any published
r e p o r t o f the occurrence o f g r o u n d n u t l e a f m i n e r i n M a l a w i
a n d o t h e r parts o f A f r i c a . G r o u n d n u t l e a f m i n e r i s b e l i e v e d
to be a p o o r m i g r a t o r y pest a n d s h o u l d be r e d u c e d from
the p r i m a r y f o c i o f infestation. I t w o u l d b e useful t o establish
p h e r o m o n e traps a t a l l locations w h e r e i t h a d been n o t i c e d .
Screening of Promising G r o u n d n u t
Genotypes for their Reaction to
Spodoptera litura
A u t h o r s (PS a n d G V R R ) w o u l d appreciate r e c e i v i n g
i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m scientists o n the occurrence o f g r o u n d n u t
l e a f m i n e r i n o t h e r parts o f A f r i c a .
References
S u b r a h m a n y a m , P., and Chiyembekeza, A . J . 1995. Survey
o f g r o u n d n u t diseases i n n o r t h e r n M a l a w i . I n t e r n a t i o n a l
Arachis N e w s l e t t e r 1 5 : 2 2 - 2 4 .
W i g h t m a n , J . A . , and R a n g a R a o , G . V . 1994. G r o u n d n u t
pests. Pages 3 9 5 - 4 7 9 in T h e g r o u n d n u t c r o p ( S m a r t , J.,
ed.). L o n d o n , U K : C h a p m a n a n d H a l l .
W i g h t m a n , J . A . , and W i g h t m a n , A . S . 1994. A n insect,
agronomic and sociological survey of groundnut fields in
southern A f r i c a . A g r i c u l t u r e , Ecosystems and E n v i r o n m e n t
51:311-331.
P K Dharne and S K Patel (Oilseeds Research Station,
Jalgaon 425 0 0 1 , Maharashtra, India)
Groundnut is an important oilseed crop, o c c u p y i n g about
8 m i l l i o n h a w h i c h i s a b o u t 4 6 % o f area u n d e r o i l s e e d i n
India. Y i e l d of groundnut in India is very l o w compared to
that i n C h i n a a n d U S A . Several reasons c o u l d b e ascribed
t o its l o w p r o d u c t i v i t y o f w h i c h t o b a c c o c a t e r p i l l a r
(Spodoptera litura) has become a l i m i t i n g factor and reduces
the y i e l d t o s o m e e x t e n t ( A m i n 1988). H e n c e , a n a t t e m p t
has been m a d e t o d e t e r m i n e the m o s t stable sources o f
tolerance in g r o u n d n u t . Screening techniques for g r o u n d n u t
germplasm against foliage pests are available ( V i k r a m S i n g h
1979, W i g h t m a n et al. 1987). M a h a d e v a n et al. ( 1 9 8 8 )
r e p o r t e d that the v a r i e t y 1CGS 50 is resistant against a
f o l i a g e pest. T h e m o s t p r o m i s i n g e n t r i e s h a v i n g h i g h
degree o f tolerance w e r e i d e n t i f i e d a s stable sources
against some n o x i o u s pests. C o n t r o l is a i m e d to be a c h i e v e d
t h r o u g h the d e v e l o p m e n t o f t o l e r a n c e against t h e m a j o r
pests o f g r o u n d n u t .
F i e l d experiments were conducted at the Oilseeds
Research S t a t i o n , J a l g a o n , M a h a r a s h t r a , I n d i a d u r i n g
1995 t o 1997 i n the r a i n y season ( k h a r i f ) . S o w i n g o f entries
was undertaken in 5-m r o w s w i t h interrow spacing of 30
c m a n d plant spacing o f 1 0 c m i n r a n d o m i z e d b l o c k d e s i g n
w i t h t w o replications. The observations were recorded on
f o l i a g e eaten b y the larvae o n ten r a n d o m l y selected
plants. The percent damage r a t i n g was scored v i s u a l l y
I A N 20, 2000 67
and c o n v e r t e d i n t o arcsin values. In the present investi-
8 7 2 9 0 , 8 7 4 1 1 , and 91214 recorded lowest leaf damage ( 5 % )
gation efforts have been made to evaluate the comparative
whereas I C G V s 8 6 3 9 3 , 8 6 4 0 2 , 8 6 5 1 3 , 8 6 6 9 9 , 8 7 4 5 3 , 9 0 2 2 8 ,
performance of groundnut genotypes for their reaction to
91166, 91168, 91180, 91183, 91187, 91200, and 91205 s h o w e d
Spodoptera l a r v a e
< 1 0 % leaf damage. I n general, all the genotypes tested
in t h e field.
Observations on Spodoptera d e f o l i a t i o n on 32 g e n o t y p e s
s h o w e d less d e f o l i a t i o n d u r i n g f l o w e r i n g t o p e g g i n g stage
r e v e a l e d f o l i a g e d a m a g e o f 5 - 3 0 % ( T a b l e 1). H o w e v e r ,
b y t h e e a r l y instar l a r v a e w h i c h c o u l d b e d u e t o t h e h a r d
the entries, v i z . , I C G V s 8 6 1 5 6 , 8 6 4 0 0 , 8 6 5 2 8 , 8 7 1 2 8 , 8 7 1 4 1 ,
a n d r o u g h leaves o f t h e g e n o t y p e s .
T a b l e 1 . S c r e e n i n g o f p r o m i s i n g g r o u n d n u t genotypes f o r t h e i r r e a c t i o n t o Spodoptera litura i n J a l g a o n , M a h a r a s h t r a ,
I n d i a d u r i n g r a i n y season i n 1 9 9 5 - 9 7 .
Aresin transformed values 1
Foliage damage (%)
1996
1997
1996
1997
Mean
I C G V 86031
10
30
10
16.7
18.44
33.21
18.44
23.36 de
I C G V 86156
5
5
5
5
12.92
12.92
12.92
12.92 a
I C G V 86162
15
30
25
23.3
22.79
33.21
30
28.67 e
I C G V 86393
10
5
5
6.7
18.44
12.92
12.92
14.76 ab
I C G V 86402
10
5
5
6.7
18.44
12.92
12.92
14.76 ab
1991
Genotype
I C G V 86400
5
5
5
I C G V 86434
20
30
20
Mean
1995
5
12.92
33.21
12.92
12.92 a
23.3
26.56
18.44
26.56
28.78 e
I C G V 86472
15
10
10
11.7
22.79
26.56
18.44
19.89 bcd
I C G V 86503
10
20
15
15
18.44
12.92
22.79
22.60 de
I C G V 86513
10
5
5
6.7
18.44
12.92
12.92
14.76 ab
I C G V 86528
5
5
5
5
12.92
18.44
12.92
12.92 a
I C G V 86699
5
10
5
6.7
12.92
12.92
12.92
14.76 ab
I C G V 87128
5
5
5
5
12.92
12.92
12.92
12.92 a
I C G V 87141
5
5
5
5
12.92
12.92
12.92
12.92 a
I C G V 87290
5
5
5
5
12.92
12.92
12.92
12.92 a
I C G V 87411
5
5
5
5
12.92
22.79
12.92
12.92 a
I C G V 87453
5
15
10
10
12.92
26.56
18.44
18.05 abcd
I C G V 88145
20
20
25
21.7
26.56
12.92
30
27.71e
I C G V 90228
15
5
5
8.3
22.76
18.44
12.92
16.21 abc
I C G V 91166
5
10
10
8.3
12.92
12.92
18.44
16.60 abc
I C G V 91168
10
5
5
6.7
18.44
26.56
12.92
14.76 ab
I C G V 91178
10
20
5
11.7
18.44
18.44
12.92
19.30 bcd
I C G V 91180
10
10
5
8.3
18.44
18.44
12.92
16.60 abc
I C G V 91183
10
5
5
6.7
18.44
12.92
12.92
14.76 ab
I C G V 91185
10
15
10
11.7
18.44
22.79
18.44
19.89 bcd
I C G V 91186
10
15
10
11.7
18.44
22.79
18.44
19.89 bcd
I C G V 91187
10
15
5
10
18.44
22.79
12.92
18.05 abcd
I C G V 91190
10
20
5
11.7
18.44
26.56
12.92
19.30 abcd
14.76 ab
I C G V 91200
5
10
5
12.92
18.44
12.92
I C G V 91205
ICGV91214
5
15
10
10
12.92
22.79
18.44
18.05 abcd
5
5
5
5
12.92
12.92
12.92
12.92 a
25
30
30
30
33.21
33.21
32.14 f
ICG 2 2 1
2
6.7
28.3
Mean
17.87
SE
±2
C D (5%)
5.78
C V (%)
1.
The
19.45
percentages were transformed
into arcsin values.
F i g u r e s w i t h s a m e l e t t e r s are n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t a t P - 0 . 0 5 % .
2.
68
Susceptible
check.
I A N 20, 2000
F u r t h e r d e t a i l e d s t u d i e s are n e e d e d t o d e t e r m i n e t y p e s
that b o t h m o r p h o l o g i c a l a n d a n a t o m i c a l c h a r a c t e r s are
o f resistance e x h i b i t e d b y the c u l t i v a r a n d the l a r v a l f e e d i n g
t h e c o n t r i b u t o r y f a c t o r s f o r resistance i n t h e g e n o t y p e s
b e h a v i o r a n d d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e p r o m i s i n g entries s h o u l d
I C G V 8 6 0 3 1 and I C G V 8 7 1 6 0 . H o w e v e r , the b i o c h e m i c a l
be considered in future breeding programs to strengthen
basis o f resistance i n g r o u n d n u t t o t h e l e a f m i n e r i s n o t
future plant protection programs.
k n o w n . T h u s , this study w a s c o n d u c t e d to assess the d i f f e r ential amount of b i o c h e m i c a l constituents in g r o u n d n u t
genotypes.
References
A total of 41 groundnut genotypes i n c l u d i n g 24 genotypes f r o m I C R I S A T , 16 h i g h - y i e l d i n g entries developed
A m i n , P . W . 1988. Insect a n d m i t e pests a n d t h e i r c o n t r o l .
Pages 3 9 3 - 4 5 2 in G r o u n d n u t ( R e d d y , P.S., ed.). N e w D e l h i ,
I n d i a : I n d i a n C o u n c i l o f A g r i c u l t u r a l Research.
a t the N a t i o n a l Pulses Research C e n t r e ( N P R C ) , V a m b a n ,
T a m i l N a d u , and the susceptible local check TM V 7 w e r e
screened u n d e r f i e l d c o n d i t i o n s against l e a f m i n e r . D u r i n g
M a h a d e v a n , N . R . , S e t h u p a t h i R a m a l i n g a m , R., and
f i e l d s c r e e n i n g i n a l l the seasons, each g e n o t y p e w a s
M a n o h a r a m , V . 1988. Screening f o r resistance t o groundnut
s o w n in s i n g l e r o w of 5 m l e n g t h ( u n r e p l i c a t e d ) a d o p t i n g a
leaf miner
Arachis
Aproaerema
modicella
Deventer.
International
spacing of 39 x 10 cm alternated w i t h the susceptible c u l t i v a r
T M V 7 . I C R I S A T entries w e r e tested d u r i n g f o u r seasons:
Newsletter 4:20.
k h a r i f ( r a i n y season) 1995, 1996, 1997, and rabi ( p o s t r a i n y
V i k r a m S i n g h . 1979. C u r r e n t status o f o i l s e e d s i n I n d i a .
H y d e r a b a d , I n d i a : D i r e c t o r a t e o f Oilseeds Research. 3 6 p p .
season) 1 9 9 5 / 9 6 ; N P R C e n t r i e s w e r e tested o n l y d u r i n g
t w o seasons i n k h a r i f 1996 a n d 1997. O b s e r v a t i o n s w e r e
W i g h t m a n , J . A . , A m i n , P . W . , R a n g a R a o , G . V . , and
m a d e o n t o p f i v e leaves o f 5 r a n d o m l y selected p l a n t s f o r
Dick,
at
n u m b e r o f leaflets d a m a g e d and l a r v a e , t w i c e a t peak i n c i -
I C R I S A T . Pages 1 0 3 - 1 1 5 i n P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e S e c o n d
dence at 15-day intervals. T h e percentage of d a m a g e d
K.M.
1987.
Research
on
groundnut
pests
Regional Groundnut W o r k s h o p for Southern A f r i c a , 1 0 -
l e a f l e t s a n d n u m b e r o f larvae per l e a f w e r e d e t e r m i n e d
14 Feb 1986, Harare, Z i m b a b w e . Patancheru 502 3 2 4 , A n d h r a
( T a b l e 1). F i v e least s u s c e p t i b l e g e n o t y p e s w e r e s e l e c t e d
P r d e s h , I n d i a : I n t e r n a t i o n a l C r o p s Research I n s t i t u t e f o r
a n d raised a g a i n w i t h t h e s u s c e p t i b l e c h e c k ( T M V 7 ) i n
the S e m i - A r i d T r o p i c s .
the f i e l d d u r i n g r a b i 1997/98 a n d the l e a f area d a m a g e w a s
assessed g r a p h i c a l l y on 5 r a n d o m l y selected leaflets t w i c e
a t peak i n c i d e n c e a t 1 5 - d a y i n t e r v a l s . T h e s e c o n d a n d
t h i r d f u l l y o p e n e d u n i n f e s t e d leaves ( 8 l e a f l e t s ) f r o m t h e
Biochemical Basis of Resistance in
G r o u n d n u t Against L e a f M i n e r
T a b l e 1. L e v e l of d a m a g e by g r o u n d n u t leaf m i n e r in less
T
Senguttuvan
and
K
Sujatha
(National
Pulses
Research Centre, T a m i l Nadu Agricultural University,
susceptible ( L S ) a n d susceptible ( S ) g r o u n d n u t g e n o types a t V a m b a n , T a m i l N a d u , India 1 .
Vamban 622 303, Pudukkottai. T a m i l Nadu, India)
The groundnut
l e a f m i n e r Aproaerema
modicella
Deventer
i s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t f o l i a g e f e e d i n g pest o f g r o u n d n u t i n
Genotype2
Damaged
Leaf area
No. of
leaflets
damage
larvae leaf -1
(%)
(mm 2 )
NPRC
I n d i a , e s p e c i a l l y in s o u t h e r n states. It is a serious pest of
V G N 52 ( L S )
0.25
20.0
98.3
g r o u n d n u t a n d s o y b e a n i n S o u t h a n d Southeast A s i a
V G N 13 (LS)
0.05
18.0
89.5
lCG 2271 (LS)
0.53
25.5
18.7
l C G V 87141 (LS)
0.50
27.4
21.8
I C G V 87453 (LS)
0.55
31.8
26.2
1.53
59.4
275.4
( W i g h t m a n e t al. 1 9 9 0 ) . I t reduces g r o u n d n u t y i e l d s b y
f e e d i n g o n l e a f l e t s . M o r e t h a n 5 0 % p o d y i e l d loss d u e t o
leaf
miner
was
reported
from
Tamil
Nadu,
India
( L o g i s w a r a n a n d M o h a n a s u n d a r a m 1985). C o n t r o l o f l e a f
ICRISAT
m i n e r m u c h r e l i e d u p o n t h e use o f i n s e c t i c i d e s , w h i c h
leads t o v a r i o u s deleterious effects. T h u s , use o f b i o c o n t r o l
L o c a l check
a g e n t s a n d r e s i s t a n t v a r i e t i e s f o r c o n t r o l o f t h e pest i s
T M V 7 (S)
i n e v i t a b l e . R e s i s t a n c e t o l e a f m i n e r i n g r o u n d n u t has been
1.
reported f r o m I C R I S A T , Patancheru, India in several
2.
Data is mean of t w o replications.
Source: N P R C = N a t i o n a l Pulses Research C e n t r e ; I C R I S A T
g e n o t y p e s ( I C R I S A T 1 9 8 6 ) . O n e v a r i e t y I C G V 8 6 0 3 1 has
= International
s h o w n g o o d tolerance to leaf miner. Visalakshi (1997) reported
Tropics.
Crops
Research
Institute
for
the
Semi-Arid
I A N 20, 2000
69
T a b l e 2.
B i o c h e m i c a l constituents of less susceptible a n d susceptible g r o u n d n u t genotypes.
Quantity 2 ( m g g - 1 of leaf sample)
Chlorophyll
Genotype1
a
b
Total
Total
phenol
Total
protein
Total free
amino acids
Total
sugars
NPRC
V G N 52 ( L S )
V G N 13 ( L S )
1.18
0.85
0.57
0.38
1.76
1.22
2.4
2.4
16.3
25.6
6.4
7.3
16.0
16.0
ICRISAT
ICG 2271 ( L S )
I C G V 87141 (LS)
I C G V 87453 ( L S )
1.18
1.06
1.15
0.56
0.52
0.58
1.74
1.59
1.73
2.6
2.6
2.5
24.4
30.4
45.8
6.6
5.8
5.9
18.0
18.0
27.0
Local check
T M V 7 (S)
1.04
0.50
1.54
2.0
18.7
5.7
82.0
1 . S o u r c e : N P R C = N a t i o n a l Pulses R e s e a r c h C e n t r e ; I C R I S A T = I n t e r n a t i o n a l C r o p s R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e f o r the S e m i - A r i d T r o p i c s .
R e a c t i o n to g r o u n d n u t l e a f m i n e r : LS = Less s u s c e p t i b l e ; S = S u s c e p t i b l e .
2. Data is mean of t w o replications.
t o p w e r e t a k e n f r o m the f i e l d a t 5 0 days after s o w i n g f r o m
t w o plants representing t w o replications. Laboratory
a n a l y s i s o f the c h e m i c a l constituents such a s c h l o r l o p h y l l
( W i t h a m et al. 1971), total p h e n o l ( B r a y and T h o r p e 1954),
t o t a l s o l u b l e p r o t e i n ( L o w r y e t a l . 1 9 5 1 ) , t o t a l free a m i n o
acids ( V a P i n L e e a n d T a k a h a s h i 1 9 6 6 ) , a n d t o t a l sugars
( H e d g e a n d H o f r e i t e r 1 9 6 2 ) w a s d o n e o n the l e a f samples
o f the entries.
L e a f m i n e r i n c i d e n c e was m o d e r a t e t o h i g h d u r i n g the
s t u d y p e r i o d . A m o n g the 4 1 g e n o t y p e s tested, f i v e
genotypes, I C G V 8 7 1 4 1 , I C G V 8 7 4 5 3 , I C G 2 2 7 1 , V G N 13,
a n d V G N 5 2 , w e r e less s u s c e p t i b l e t o l e a f m i n e r than the
s u s c e p t i b l e c h e c k T M V 7 , w i t h less larvae per l e a f ( 0 . 0 5 0 . 5 5 ) a n d less l e a f l e t d a m a g e ( 1 8 . 0 - 3 1 . 8 % ) ( T a b l e 1).
A l t h o u g h the p e r c e n t a g e o f d a m a g e d leaflets w a s h i g h i n
the less s u s c e p t i b l e I C R I S A T g e n o t y p e s , the l e a f area
d a m a g e d w a s l o w e r ( 1 8 . 7 - 2 6 . 2 m m 2 ) t h a n that i n N P R C
g e n o t y p e s ( 8 9 . 5 - 9 8 . 3 m m 2 ) . T h e susceptible c h e c k T M V
7 r e c o r d e d h i g h l e a f area d a m a g e o f 2 7 5 . 4 m m 2 .
T h e results o f t h e b i o c h e m i c a l a n a l y s i s r e v e a l e d that
the less s u s c e p t i b l e g e n o t y p e s a n d susceptible c h e c k d i d
not differ markedly in their content of c h l o r o p h y l l a,
c h l r o p h y l l b , t o t a l c h l o r o p h y l l , t o t a l p r o t e i n , and t o t a l free
a m i n o acids. T h u s , these c o n s t i t u e n t s m i g h t n o t have
i n f l u e n c e d the s u s c e p t i b i l i t y o f g r o u n d n u t t o l e a f m i n e r
attack. H o w e v e r , there w a s m a r k e d d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n
t h e less s u s c e p t i b l e g e n o t y p e s a n d susceptible c h e c k i n
t h e a m o u n t o f t o t a l sugars. T h e a m o u n t o f t o t a l sugars
w a s h i g h i n s u s c e p t i b l e T M V 7 ( 8 2 . 0 m g g - 1 ), w h i l e i t w a s
l o w i n less s u s c e p t i b l e g e n o t y p e s ( 1 6 . 0 - 2 7 . 0 m g g - 1 )
( T a b l e 2 ) . T h e t o t a l p h e n o l c o n t e n t w a s 2.0 m g g - 1 o f l e a f
70 I A N 20, 2000
s a m p l e i n susceptible T M V 7 , w h i l e i t w a s 2 . 4 - 2 . 6 m g g - 1
o f l e a f s a m p l e i n the less susceptible g e n o t y p e s .
M a c f o y et al. (1983) recorded h i g h concentrations of
sugars a n d a m i n o acids, a n d l o w a m o u n t s o f p h e n o l s a n d
crude fiber in c o w p e a c u l t i v a r V i t a - 1 susceptible to Maruca
testulalis. L o w a m o u n t o f p h e n o l c o n t e n t i n p i g e o n p e a
flowers f a v o r e d m o r e flower d a m a g e by M testulalis
( G a n a p a t h y 1 9 9 6 ) . T h e results o b t a i n e d i n the present
s t u d y also i s i n a g r e e m e n t w i t h the a b o v e f i n d i n g s . T h i s
s t u d y c o n c l u d e s that less s u s c e p t i b i l i t y o f g r o u n d n u t
g e n o t y p e s t o l e a f m i n e r m i g h t b e due t o l o w a m o u n t o f
sugars a n d s l i g h t l y h i g h e r a m o u n t o f p h e n o l s . H o w e v e r ,
f u r t h e r studies are necessary f o r a better u n d e r s t a n d i n g .
References
B r a y , H . G . , and T h o r p e , W . V . 1954. A n a l y s i s o f p h e n o l i c
c o m p o u n d s o f interest m e t a b o l i s m . M e t h o d o l o g i e s i n
B i o c h e m i c a l A n a l y s i s 1:27-52.
G a n a p a t h y , N . 1996. B i o e c o l o g y and management o f spotted
p o d b o r e r {Maruca testulalis Geyer) in p i g e o n p e a . P h . D .
thesis, T a m i l N a d u A g r i c u l t u r a l U n i v e r s i t y , C o i m b a t o r e ,
I n d i a . 171 p p .
H e d g e , J . E . , and H o f r e i t e r , B . T . 1962. D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f
r e d u c i n g sugars a n d c a r b o h y d r a t e s . I . A n a l y s i s a n d
p r e p a r a t i o n o f sugars. Pages 4 8 - 5 9 i n C a r b o h y d r a t e
c h e m i s t r y ( W h i s t l e r , R . L . , a n d B e M i l l e r , J . N . , eds.). N e w
Y o r k , U S A : A c a d e m i c Press.
I C R I S A T (International Crops Research Institute for the
S e m i - A r i d Tropics). 1986. A n n u a l report 1985. Patancheru
5 0 2 3 2 4 , A n d h r a Pradesh, I n d i a : I C R I S A T . 7 4 p p .
Logiswaran, G . , and M o h a n a s u n d a r a m , M . 1985. Effect o f
i n t e r c r o p p i n g , s p a c i n g a n d m u l c h i n g i n the c o n t r o l o f
g r o u n d n u t l e a f m i n e r , Aproaerema modicella Deventer
(Gelechiidae: Lepidoptera). Madras A g r i c u l t u r a l Journal
72:695-700.
L o w r y , O . H . , Rose B r o u g h , N . J . , F a r r , A . L . , and R a n d a l l ,
R . J . 1951. Protein measurement w i t h f o l i n - p h e n o l reagent.
Journal o f B i o l o g i c a l C h e m i s t r y 1 9 3 : 2 6 5 - 2 7 5 .
M a c f o y , C. A . , D a b r o w s k i , Z . T . , and O k e c h , S. 1983. Studies
on the l e g u m e p o d borer, Maruca testulalis (Geyer). I V .
C o w p e a resistance to o v i p o s i t i o n and l a r v a l feeding.
Insect Science a n d its A p p l i c a t i o n s 4 : 1 4 7 - 1 5 2 .
V a P i n Lee, and T a k a h a s h i , T . 1966. A n i m p r o v e d c o l o r i m e t r i c d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f a m i n o a c i d s w i t h the use o f n i n hydrin. Analytical Biochemistry 14:71-77.
V i s a l a k s h i , V . 1997. N o n - p r e f e r e n c e o f m e c h a n i s m o f
resistance i n g r o u n d n u t cultures t o the l e a f m i n e r
Aproaerema modicella Deventer.
J o u r n a l of O i l s e e d s
Research 1 4 : 2 6 5 - 2 6 8 .
W i g h t m a n , J.A., Dick, K . M . , Ranga Rao, G . V . ,
S h a n o w e r , T . G . , and G o l d , C . S . 1990. Pests o f g r o u n d n u t
in the s e m i - a r i d t r o p i c s . Pages 2 4 3 - 3 2 2 in Insect pests of
f o o d l e g u m e s ( S i n g h , S.R., ed.). N e w Y o r k , U S A : John
W i l e y & Sons.
W i t h a m , F . H . , B l a y d e s , D . F . , and D e v l i n , R . N . 1971.
Experiments i n plant p h y s i o l o g y . N e w Y o r k , U S A : V a n
Nostrant C o m p a n y . 245 pp.
Morphological and Yield Attributes of
Advanced Breeding Lines Susceptible
and Resistant to Spodoptera litura
R P Vasanthi and K Padmavathamma (Regional A g r i cultural Research Station, Acharya N G Ranga Agricultural
University, Tirupati 517 502, Andhra Pradesh. India)
G r o u n d n u t i s a n i m p o r t a n t oilseed c r o p i n the state o f
A n d h r a Pradesh in I n d i a . Insect pests pose a serious
p r o b l e m f o r g r o u n d n u t p r o d u c t i o n . A m o n g insect pests,
the t o b a c c o c a t e r p i l l a r Spodoptera litura is a serious pest
i n p o s t r a i n y season ( r a b i ) g r o u n d n u t . I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f
resistant lines to Spodoptera w o u l d g r e a t l y h e l p to
increase g r o u n d n u t p r o d u c t i v i t y d u r i n g the p o s t r a i n y
season. In the present study, a d v a n c e d b r e e d i n g lines
developed t h r o u g h h y b r i d i z a t i o n and selection u s i n g insect
resistant genotypes were evaluated for their p r o d u c t i v i t y ,
Spodoptera damage, m o r p h o l o g i c a l characters, a n d y i e l d
attributes.
Twenty-one breeding lines along w i t h t w o check varieties,
JL 24 and T i r u p a t i 1, were laid out in a r a n d o m i z e d b l o c k
design w i t h three replications d u r i n g 1997/98 p o s t r a i n y
season a t T i r u p a t i , A n d h r a Pradesh. T h e lines w e r e s o w n
i n t w o r o w s o f 5 m l e n g t h . A n i n t e r r o w spacing o f 22.5 c m
and plant spacing of 10 cm were adopted. The check v a r i e t y
J L 2 4 w a s s o w n after e v e r y three test g e n o t y p e s . O b s e r v a t i o n s w e r e r e c o r d e d o n l e a f c o l o r , shape, hairiness, a n d
ashy nature, a n d stem hairiness after 6 0 days o f s o w i n g
( D A S ) . T h e percentage of leaves damaged by Spodoptera
was assessed 6 5 D A S b y c o u n t i n g d a m a g e d leaves ( > 7 5 %
o f the leaflet area eaten b y c a t e r p i l l a r s ) a n d t o t a l n u m b e r
of leaves on 5 r a n d o m l y chosen plants. Leaves w i t h n e g l i g i b l e damage o f leaf area were not taken into account. Y i e l d
and y i e l d attributes w e r e r e c o r d e d after harvest.
S i g n i f i c a n t differences w e r e o b s e r v e d f o r p o d y i e l d
plant" 1 a n d percentage of leaves d a m a g e d by Spodoptera.
T h e genotypes, T C G S - 6 5 9 ( 2 4 % ) , T C G S - 6 3 6 ( 2 5 % ) , a n d
T C G S - 6 6 7 ( 2 9 % ) h a d l o w e r percentage o f Spodoptera
damage. A l l these genotypes had n a r r o w leaves. T h e leaflets
o f genotypes T C G S - 6 5 9 and 6 3 6 possess dense hairs w i t h
ashy c o a t i n g . Seven genotypes, T C G S - 6 3 6 , 6 3 9 , 6 4 6 , 6 4 7 ,
6 4 8 , 6 4 9 , a n d 6 6 1 , s h o w e d m o d e r a t e percentage o f
Spodoptera damaged leaves ( 3 1 - 3 5 % ) . A m o n g these, except
T C G S - 6 4 7 and 6 6 1 , the other f i v e g e n o t y p e s possessed
n a r r o w l o n g leaflets w i t h m o d e r a t e t o profuse hairiness
a n d p r o m i n e n t ashy c o a t i n g . I n the g e n o t y p e s T C G S - 6 6 1
and 647 the leaflets w e r e b r o a d and short w i t h m o d e r a t e to
profuse hairiness a n d p r o m i n e n t ashy c o a t i n g ( T a b l e 1).
T h e genotypes T C G S - 6 3 9 a n d 6 6 7 r e c o r d e d s i g n i f i cantly h i g h mean p o d y i e l d plant - 1 ( 1 4 g). These g e n o t y p e s
s h o w e d m o d e r a t e percentage o f Spodoptera d a m a g e .
T h e genotypes T C G S - 6 3 6 , T C G S - 6 4 4 , and T i r u p a t i 1 gave
higher shelling out-turn ( 7 5 % ) . T h e data d i d not reveal any
relationship between percentage of Spodoptera damage
and s h e l l i n g percentage a n d 100-seed mass ( T a b l e 1). In
susceptible genotypes, J L 2 4 , T i r u p a t i I , T C G S - 6 4 4 , 6 5 2 ,
6 5 3 , 6 5 4 , and 6 5 5 , leaflets w e r e b r o a d o r m o d e r a t e a n d
l o n g ; hairiness o f stem and leaves w a s s l i g h t o r m o d e r a t e .
I n this s t u d y , l e a f c o l o r d i d n o t s h o w any r e l a t i o n s h i p
w i t h Spodoptera damage.
F r o m the results of this study, it can be i n f e r r e d that the
genotypes w i t h narrow l o n g leaflets and profuse hairiness of
leaves a n d stem are less p r e f e r r e d by Spodoptera larvae
for feeding c o m p a r e d t o genotypes w i t h b r o a d l o n g leaflets
a n d s l i g h t hairiness o n leaves a n d stem. V i s a l a k s h i ( 1 9 9 7 )
I A N 20, 2000 71
T a b l e 1 . R e a c t i o n o f a d v a n c e d g r o u n d n u t b r e e d i n g l i n e s t o Spodoptera litura a n d t h e i r m o r p h o l o g i c a l t r a i t s d u r i n g
1 9 9 7 / 9 8 p o s t r a i n y season a t T i r u p a t i , A n d h r a P r a d e s h , I n d i a .
Pod y i e l d
plant
-1
Special morphological features 1
Percentage
of leaves
100-seed
Shelling
Ashy
mass
out-turn
LC
LS
LH
SH
coating
(g)
(%)
TCGS-635
T i r u p a t i 1 x 1CGV 86398 12
43
G
NS
S
S
Pr
39
69
TCGS-636
T i r u p a t i 1 x 1CGV 86398
6
25
G
NL
P
S
Mo
46
75
TCGS-639
Tirupati 1 x 1CGV 86398 14
31
DG
NL
P
p
Pr
54
72
TCGS-644
JL 24 x 1CGV 86398
52
LG
BL
M
M
-
36
TCGS-646
JL 24 x I C G V 86398
8
33
DG
NL
P
P
Pr
41
71
TCGS-647
JL 24 x I C G V 86398
9
34
DG
BS
M
P
Pr
56
72
TCGS-648
JL 24 x I C G V 86398
8
33
DG
NL
M
M
-
35
70
TCGS-649
Tirupati 1 x I C G V 86031
8
33
DG
NL
P
M
Pr
34
70
TCGS-650
JL 24 x I C G V 86031
9
38
LG
BL
M
M
-
42
67
Pedigree
Entry
(g)
8
damaged
75
TCGS-652
JL 24 x I C G V 86031
7
53
DG
ML
M
M
-
38
66
TCGS-653
TCGS-654
JL 24 x I C G V 86031
8
50
DG
ML
S
M
-
54
70
JL 24 x I C G V 86031
8
62
DG
ML
M
S
-
40
72
TCGS-655
JL 24 x I C G V 86031
8
52
LG
BL
S
S
-
40
62
TCGS-658
JL 24 x I C G 5240
TCGS-659
T C G S - 3 7 x N c A c 343
11
38
DG
BS
S
M
-
49
70
8
24
G
NL
P
S
Pr
34
61
60
TCGS-661
I C G V 86031 x T A G 24
10
35
DG
BS
P
S
Pr
36
TCGS-662
I C G V 86031 x T A G 24
12
41
DG
NS
P
S
Pr
39
68
TCGS-663
I C G V 86031 x T A G 24
13
40
DG
BS
M
Pr
42
62
TCGS-664
I C G V 86031 x JL 24
6
53
LG
BL
S
S
S
-
30
70
TCGS-665
I C G V 86031 x JL 24
8
DG
NS
-
36
70
I C G V 86031 x TG 24
14
DG
NS
S
S
S
TCGS-667
36
29
S
36
61
JL 24
EC 949493
10
63
DG
BL
S
S
Pr
-
48
68
Tirupati 1
EC 106983/3
52
LG
NL
S
S
Pr
35
75
C D (P = 0.05)
C V (%)
1.
9
2.4
15.0
9.8
15.0
LC = L e a f color; LS = L e a f shape; LH = L e a f hairiness; SH = Stem hairiness; G = Green; DG = D a r k green; LG = L i g h t green; NS = N a r r o w
short; NL
= N a r r o w l o n g ; BS = B r o a d short; BL = B r o a d l o n g ; ML = M o d e r a t e l y l o n g ; P = Profusely h a i r y ; M = M o d e r a t e l y h a i r y ; S -
S l i g h t l y h a i r y ; Pr = P r o m i n e n t ; M = M o d e r a t e ; - = S l i g h t or a b s e n t .
r e p o r t e d that the resistant g r o u n d n u t genotypes I C G V s
Evaluation of Biological C o n t r o l
8 6 0 3 1 a n d 8 7 0 6 0 w e r e less p r e f e r r e d b y t h e l e a f m i n e r f o r
Potential of Rhinocoris marginatus on
o v i p o s i t i o n . A t t r i b u t e s such as t r i c h o m e s in plant t e r m i nals a n d p e d i c e l s , s u r f a c e w a x e s , o k r a leaf, a n d f r e g o
F o u r G r o u n d n u t Pests under L a b o r a t o r y
b r a c t w e r e s h o w n t o b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i n s e c t pest resis-
Conditions
tance in cotton (Narayanan 1995).
K Sahayaraj (Crop Protection Research U n i t , Depart-
References
ment of Z o o l o g y , St. Xavier's College, Palayakottai
627 002, T a m i l Nadu, India)
N a r a y a n a n , S.S. 1 9 9 5 . R e s i s t a n c e t o Heliothis a n d o t h e r
i n s e c t pests in Gossypium s p p . Pages 1 9 5 - 2 1 0 in G e n e t i c
research and e d u c a t i o n . C u r r e n t trends and the n e x t f i f t y
years. N e w D e l h i , India: Indian Society of Genetics and
Rhinocoris
marginatus
Fab.
is
a
widespread
predator
f o u n d i n the c o t t o n , s o y b e a n , g r o u n d n u t a g r o - e c o s y s t e m s
o f T a m i l N a d u , I n d i a (Sahayaraj 1995). I t has g o o d searching
Plant Breeding.
a b i l i t y , m o d e r a t e degree o f host s p e c i f i c i t y , shorter d e v e l o p V i s a l a k s h i , M . 1997. N o n - p r e f e r e n c e m e c h a n i s m o f resistance
g r o u n d n u t cultures to
mental period, and h i g h reproductive capacity (Sahayaraj
l e a f m i n e r , Aproaerema
1995, 1999). Field evaluation in groundnut ecosystem
modicella Deventer. Journal o f O i l s e e d s Research 1 4 : 2 5 6 - 2 5 8 .
suggested that this p r e d a t o r c o u l d b e used i n the g r o u n d n u t
72
in
I A N 20, 2000
biological
Rhinocoris marginatus feeds
is t e r m e d as f u n c t i o n a l response ( S a l o m o n 1949). F u n c t i o n a l
p r i m a r i l y o n t h e y o u n g ones o f L e p i d o p t e r a , H e m i p t e r a ,
control
program.
response reveals t h e p r e d a t o r y e f f i c i e n c y o f a p a r t i c u l a r
C o l e o p t e r a , a n d I s o p t e r a , a l t h o u g h i t accepts p r e y f r o m
predator at different prey densities. Such k n o w l e d g e is
other insect orders ( K u m a r a s w a m i 1 9 9 1 , Sahayaraj 1995,
essential t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e basic m e c h a n i s m u n d e r l y i n g
1 9 9 9 ) . P r e y a n d stage p r e f e r e n c e studies o f f i f t h instars o f
t h e p r e y - p r e d a t o r i n t e r a c t i o n a n d t o e v o l v e strategies f o r
R. marginatus s u g g e s t e d t h a t it p r e f e r r e d
mass r e a r i n g , large-scale release, and u t i l i z a t i o n o f predators
Aproaerema
Hubner,
modicella
Deventer,
a n d Spodoptera litura Fab.
Amsacta albistriga Walk. ( S a h a y a r a j
fifth
instars of
Helicoverpa
armigera
and
third
instars
of
1 9 9 9 ) . H e n c e t h e r e is
i n b i o l o g i c a l control programs. T h e i n f o r m a t i o n o n f u n c t i o n a l
r e s p o n s e of R.
marginatus on these g r o u n d n u t pests
is
n o t d o c u m e n t e d . H e n c e t h e present s t u d y i s i n t e n d e d t o
a need f o r f u r t h e r studies o n the b i o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l p o t e n t i a l
estimate the b i o l o g i c a l control potential of this r e d u v i i d
evaluation of this predator.
p r e d a t o r o n these g r o u n d n u t pests.
armigera,
A d u l t s and n y m p h a l stages of the predator R. marginatus
a n d S . litura are t h e m o s t c o m m o n d e f o l i a t o r s o f g r o u n d -
Aproaerema
modicella,
A.
albistriga,
H.
w e r e c o l l e c t e d f r o m the g r o u n d n u t f i e l d i n T r i c h y d i s t r i c t ,
n u t ( W i g h t m a n a n d R a o 1 9 9 3 ) . M o s t o f these pests are
T a m i l N a d u a n d w e r e r e a r e d o n g r o u n d n u t pests u n d e r
r e s i s t a n t t o t h e c o m m o n l y used p e s t i c i d e s . T h e f e e d i n g
laboratory conditions ( 3 0 ± 2 ° C , 7 5 ± 5 % relative h u m i d i t y ,
rate o f a n i n d i v i d u a l p r e d a t o r a s a f u n c t i o n o f p r e y d e n s i t y
and 11-12 h photoperiod) in 250 ml plastic containers.
N e w l y e m e r g e d f i f t h instars o f t h i s p r e d a t o r w e r e c h o s e n
f o r the e x p e r i m e n t . T h e e x p e r i m e n t a l predators w e r e s t a r v e d
f o r 24 h p r i o r to the test. F o u r g r o u n d n u t pests, A. albistriga,
T a b l e 1 . S u m m a r y o f calculations used i n p r e d i c t i n g t h e
biological c o n t r o l p o t e n t i a l of Rhinocoris marginatus on
f o u r g r o u n d n u t pests.
A. modicella, H. armigera, and S. litura, w e r e also c o l l e c t e d
f r o m the same l o c a l i t i e s w h e r e the r e d u v i i d p r e d a t o r s w e r e
c o l l e c t e d . T h e y w e r e r e a r e d o n g r o u n d n u t leaves. T h e
b i o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l p o t e n t i a l o f f i f t h instars o f R . marginatus
Prey
Prey
Attack
Searching
Handling
density
attacked
ratio
time (Ts)
time (b)
(X)
(Y)
(Y/X)
(days)
(days)
to
third
A.
modicella,
instars
H.
of A.
albistriga
armigera,
and
and
S.
fifth
instars
litura w a s
of
assessed
s e p a r a t e l y at 6 d i f f e r e n t p r e y d e n s i t i e s , v i z . , 1 , 2 , 4 , 8, 16,
Amsacta albistriga
1
2
1.00
1.57
1.000
0.957
0.043
a n d 3 2 p r e y p e r p r e d a t o r f o r 5 days c o n t i n u o u s l y . P l a n t s
0.785
0.935
0.041
(45 days o l d ) of the g r o u n d n u t c u l t i v a r T M V 7 in pots
4
2.56
0.640
0.902
0.038
c o v e r e d w i t h m e s h cage ( 4 5 x 4 5 x 4 5 c m ) w e r e a r r a n g e d
8
3.14
0.392
0.884
0.037
f o r insect releases. D i f f e r e n t l a r v a l n u m b e r s o f t h e f o u r
16
3.85
0.240
0.881
0.031
pests w e r e released o n t h e u p p e r s u r f a c e o f t h e p l a n t a n d
4.06
0.126
0.882
0.029
32
Aproaerema
modicella
1
a l l o w e d to settle f o r 3 h. A f t e r 3 h, a
fifth
i n s t a r of
R. marginatus w a s released i n t o each cage. A f t e r e v e r y 24
1.00
1.000
0.972
0.028
2
2.00
1.000
0.948
0.026
4
4.00
1.000
0.916
0.021
h, the n u m b e r of prey consumed or k i l l e d was c o u n t e d and
the p r e y n u m b e r w a s m a i n t a i n e d constant b y r e p l a c i n g t h e
dead p r e y t h r o u g h o u t the e x p e r i m e n t a l p e r i o d s . T h e test
8
6.53
0.816
0.875
0.019
16
13.46
0.841
0.784
0.016
32
18.37
0.574
0.724
0.015
predators o f b o t h sexes separately. T h e f u n c t i o n a l response
1.00
1.000
0.961
0.039
between the prey density and the prey c o n s u m p t i o n or
k i l l e d ( H o l l i n g 1959).
Heliothis
e x p e r i m e n t s w e r e p e r f o r m e d t o d e t e r m i n e the r e l a t i o n s h i p
armigera
1
w a s r e p l i c a t e d 1 0 t i m e s f o r each pest w i t h 1 0 d i f f e r e n t
2
2.00
1.000
0.930
0.035
4
3.45
0.862
0.890
0.032
8
6.78
0.847
0.800
0.029
16
12.08
0.755
0.698
0.025
16.93
0.529
0.611
0.023
1
1.00
1.000
0.962
0.038
f u n c t i o n . The n u m b e r o f prey k i l l e d b y the i n d i v i d u a l
2
2.00
1.000
0.938
0.031
predator increased from 1 p r e y per predator to 32 p r e y per
4
3.30
0.825
0.917
0.025
p r e d a t o r ( T a b l e 1). S u c h a k i n d o f r e s p o n s e c a n increase
8
6.05
0.756
0.861
0.023
the p r o b a b i l i t y o f predator b e i n g a n e f f e c t i v e b i o l o g i c a l
16
11.75
0.734
c o n t r o l agent. I n g e n e r a l , t h e n u m b e r o f p r e y k i l l e d o r
16.12
0.503
0.753
0.694
0.031
32
32
Spodoptera
Rhinocoris
marginatus
responded
to
the
increasing
prey density by k i l l i n g higher n u m b e r of prey than it k i l l e d
a t l o w e r prey densities and e x h i b i t e d type I I o f H o l l i n g ' s
( 1 9 5 9 ) c o n v e x c u r v e w h i c h is a t y p i c a l l y d e n s i t y d e p e n d e n t
litura
0.019
consumed ( Y ) in a given time (Tt) did not differ significantly
I A N 20, 2000
73
f r o m the n u m b e r s c a l c u l a t e d ( V ) o n the basis o f H o l l i n g ' s
'disc' equation.
References
T h e highest attack r a t i o ( Y / X ) w a s o b s e r v e d a t p r e y
d e n s i t y ( X ) o f one p r e y per p r e d a t o r w h i c h decreased a s
the p r e y d e n s i t y w a s increased ( T a b l e 1). T h e p r e d a t o r
spent some t i m e f o r searching its p r e y . T h e sear ching t i m e
( T s ) ( d a y s ) w a s c a l c u l a t e d b y the f o l l o w i n g f o r m u l a :
Hassell, M . P . , L a w t o n , J . H . , and B e d d i n g t o n , J . R . 1977.
S i g m o i d f u n c t i o n a l response b y i n v e r t e b r a t e p r e d a t i o n
a n d parasites. J o u r n a l o f A n i m a l E c o l o g y 4 6 : 2 4 9 - 2 6 2 .
Ts = T t - b y
T h e t i m e t a k e n b y the p r e d a t o r t o feed the c a p t u r e d
p r e y was o b s e r v e d a s h a n d l i n g t i m e o r f e e d i n g t i m e ( b ) . T s
decreased w i t h increased p r e y density. Hassell et a l . ( 1 9 7 7 )
stated that the attack rate decreased w i t h i n c r e a s i n g p r e y
d e n s i t y i n predators h a v i n g t y p e I I f u n c t i o n a l response.
T h e o r e t i c a l l y , each m i l l i g r a m o f p r e y f o o d r e q u i r e d a c o n stant a m o u n t o f t i m e ' B ' f o r c o n s u m p t i o n . A s o b s e r v e d
f o r s e a r c h i n g t i m e , the h a n d l i n g t i m e also decreased w i t h
increased p r e y d e n s i t y . T h i s indicates that the predator
s u b d u e d the p r e y m o r e q u i c k l y a n d c o n s u m e d t h e m faster
at higher prey density than at l o w e r prey density. The
h a n d l i n g t i m e w a s m i n i m u m w h e n the p r e d a t o r was p r o v i d e d w i t h A. modicella. T h i s m i g h t be due to the s m a l l
size o f t h i s p r e y . Presence o f hairs i n A . albistriga m a y
have caused stress d u r i n g f e e d i n g a n d thus h a n d l i n g t i m e
w a s h i g h . M o r e t i m e w a s taken b y the predator t o paralyze
the s i n g l e p r e y a n d t o c o n s u m e increased a m o u n t o f f o o d
f r o m the p r e y .
T h e m a x i m u m p r e d a t i o n a t the highest p r e y d e n s i t y i s
represented b y the ' k ' v a l u e . T h e k / T t v a l u e was highest
f o r A. modicella ( 1 8 . 3 7 ) f o l l o w e d by H. armigera ( 1 6 . 9 3 ) ,
S. litura ( 1 6 . 1 2 ) , a n d A. albistriga ( 4 . 0 6 ) . H i g h e r k / T t in
A. modicella w a s p r e s u m a b l y due to s m a l l size of the
p r e y , a c t i v e s e a r c h i n g a n d q u i c k e r p a r a l y z i n g , a n d shorter
i n t e r v a l s b e t w e e n successive attacks o f the predator.
H o w e v e r , the u t i l i z a t i o n o f the p r e d a t o r f o r the c o n t r o l o f
A. modicella can o n l y be d e t e r m i n e d t h r o u g h actual field
t r i a l s . L o w e r p r e d a t i o n in A. albistriga m i g h t be due to the
presence o f h a i r y b o d y surface. T h e p o s i t i v e f u n c t i o n a l
response observed in R. marginatus suggests its b i o c o n t r o l
p o t e n t i a l . These studies a n d the p r e v i o u s o b s e r v a t i o n s
(Sahayaraj 1999) w h e r e R. marginatus r e d u c e d 9 2 . 7 3 %
H. armigera a n d 9 4 . 9 1 % S. litura c o n f i r m s that it can be
used i n a n i n t e g r a t e d pest m a n a g e m e n t ( I P M ) p r o g r a m .
Acknowledgments. T h e author is grateful to the P r i n c i p a l ,
a n d Prof. M T h o m a s Punithan (He a d , D e p a r t m e n t o f Z o o l o g y ) , St. X a v i e r ' s C o l l e g e , T a m i l N a d u , I n d i a f o r t h e i r e n c o u r a g e m e n t a n d f a c i l i t i e s . T h e f i n a n c i a l assistance p r o v i d e d b y the D e p a r t m e n t o f Science a n d T e c h n o l o g y ,
G o v e r n m e n t o f I n d i a i s also a c k n o w l e d g e d .
74 I A N 20, 2000
H o l l i n g , C . S . 1959. S o m e characteristics o f s i m p l e t y p e o f
p r e d a t i o n a n d p a r a s i t i s m . C a n a d i a n E n t o m o l o g y 91:3 8 5 398.
K u m a r a s w a m i , N.S. 1991. Bioecology and ethology of
chosen p r e d a t o r y b u g s a n d t h e i r p o t e n t i a l i n b i o l o g i c a l
c o n t r o l . P h . D . thesis, M a d u r a i K a m a r a j U n i v e r s i t y ,
Madurai, India, pp. 142-166.
S a h a y a r a j , K . 1995. B i o e f f i c a c y a n d p r e y size s u i t a b i l i t y
of Rhinocoris marginatus (Fab.) to Helicoverpa armigera
Hubner o f g r o u n d n u t . Fresenius E n v i r o n m e n t a l B u l l e t i n
4:270-278.
S a h a y a r a j , K . 1999. F i e l d e v a l u a t i o n o f the predator,
Rhynocoris marginatus (Fab.), on t w o g r o u n d n u t d e f o l i a tors. I n t e r n a t i o n a l Arachis N e w l e t t e r 1 9 : 4 1 - 4 2 .
Salomon, M . E . 1949. The natural control of animal population.
Journal o f A n i m a l E c o l o g y 1 8 : 1 - 3 5 .
W i g h t m a n , J . A . , and R a n g a R a o , G . V . 1993. A g r o u n d n u t
insect i d e n t i f i c a t i o n h a n d b o o k f o r I n d i a . I n f o r m a t i o n
B u l l e t i n n o . 3 9 . Patancheru 5 0 2 3 2 4 , A n d h r a Pradesh,
I n d i a : I n t e r n a t i o n a l C r o p s Research Institute f o r the S e m i A r i d T r o p i c s . 6 4 pp.
N a t u r a l Fungal Pathogencity on
G r o u n d n u t Defoliator Spodoptera litura
S Venkatesan 1 , S N Nigam 2 , S E Naina M o h a m m e d 1 ,
and K N Ganesan 1 ( 1 . Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Regional Research Sation, Vridhachalam 606 0 0 1 , T a m i l
Nadu, India; 2. International Crops Research Institute for
the Semi-Arid Tropics ( I C R I S A T ) , Patancheru 502 324,
Andhra Pradesh, India)
G r o u n d n u t c r o p m o n i t o r i n g t e a m o f scientists c o n s t i t u t e d
for Z o n e V Breeder Seed Plot v i s i t e d I C R I S A T , Patancheru,
I n d i a o n 2 3 September 1999. D u r i n g the f i e l d v i s i t mycoses
( 1 1 % ) a m o n g the l a r v a l p o p u l a t i o n of Spodoptera litura
was observed. T h e entomopathogenic fungus was identified
as
Nomuraea
rileyi
(Farlow)
Samson
(Moniliales:
M o n i l i a c e a e ) . T h e d i s p e r s i o n a n d spread o f t h i s p a t h o genic fungus in rabi (postrainy season)-sown crop w i l l
n a t u r a l l y c o n t a i n the S. litura l a r v a l p o p u l a t i o n . H e n c e it
is the r i g h t t i m e to e x p l o i t the pathogen under f i e l d c o n d i -
T h e leaf extracts of A. indica, V. negundo, and C. gigantea
t i o n s t o s t r e n g t h e n t h e e x i s t i n g e f f e c t i v e e c o f r i e n d l y pest
a n d b u l b e x t r a c t o f A . cepa w e r e p r e p a r e d a c c o r d i n g t o
m a n a g e m e n t s t r a t e g i e s . A p a r t f r o m t h i s p a t h o g e n , use o f
S a h a y a r a j ( 1 9 9 8 ) . T e n g r a m s each o f the leaves a n d b u l b s
botanicals, parasitoids, and predators to contain the de-
were macerated i n d i v i d u a l l y in pestle and mortar and extracted
f o l i a t i o n b y less t h a n 1 0 % d a m a g e i n 6 0 - d a y - o l d c r o p h a d
w i t h 1 0 m L o f water. T h e extract was passed t h r o u g h m u s l i n
n o e f f e c t o n t h e p o d y i e l d . P r e l i m i n a r y c o n f i n e d studies o f
c l o t h a n d the f i n a l v o l u m e m a d e u p t o 100 m L t o get 1 0 %
the f u n g a l p a t h o g e n i c i t y against S. litura c o n d u c t e d at the
e x t r a c t s . It w a s t r e a t e d as a s t o c k s o l u t i o n . F r o m t h e s t o c k
R e g i o n a l Research Station, V r i d h a c h a l a m , T a m i l N a d u ,
s o l u t i o n 5 d i f f e r e n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , 0 . 5 , 1.0, 2 . 0 , 4 . 0 , a n d
I n d i a revealed that the t h i r d instar larval m u m m i f i c a t i o n was
6 . 0 % w e r e m a d e w i t h required q u a n t i t y o f water. G r o u n d n u t
due to the i n f e c t i o n on the f i f t h day after s p r a y i n g w i t h
seeds ( 5 g ) w e r e d i p p e d i n d i f f e r e n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s sepa-
N. rileyi at a c o n c e n t r a t i o n of 1 x 10 8 spores m L - 1 . Assess-
r a t e l y f o r 1 5 m i n a n d air d r i e d f o r 1 0 m i n .
m e n t o n the d y n a m i c s o f c o n i d i a l dispersal and density
I n c o n t r o l , t h e g r o u n d n u t seeds w e r e d i p p e d i n w a t e r
w i t h i n the g r o u n d n u t crop ecosystem at field level is in
o n l y . A glass olfactometer was used to f i n d the repellent
progress.
properties of the p l a n t extracts against T. castaneum. An
I n f u t u r e , s t u d i e s a t t h e f i e l d l e v e l o n the u t i l i z a t i o n o f
o l f a c t o m e t e r consists o f a m i d d l e glass c h a m b e r ( 6 0 m m
n a t u r a l l y o c c u r r i n g f u n g a l p a t h o g e n s s u c h as Beauvaria
d i a m e t e r ) f r o m w h i c h 6 e q u a l l y s p a c e d tubes ( 2 0 c m
rileyi ( g r e e n
l e n g t h a n d 2.5 c m d i a m e t e r ) p r o j e c t o u t w a r d s . T h e m i d d l e
m u s c a r d i n e f u n g u s ) t o c o n t a i n the g r o u n d n u t d e f o l i a t o r s
c h a m b e r has a n o p e n i n g o f 2.5 c m d i a m e t e r . T h e d i s t a l e n d
w i t h o u t any r e d u c t i o n in p o d y i e l d w i l l be an accessible
o f each a r m i s attached w i t h a glass b e a k e r ( 7 c m d i a m e t e r
bassiana ( w h i t e m u s c a r d i n e f u n g u s ) a n d N.
ecofriendly
pest m a n a g e m e n t s t r a t e g y
for sustainable
and 9 cm height). T h e repellent p r o p e r t y of the plants was
tested by c h o i c e test. T e n - d a y - o l d
groundnut cultivation.
T.
castaneum a d u l t s
w e r e c o l l e c t e d f r o m the c u l t u r e m e d i u m m a i n t a i n e d i n t h e
l a b o r a t o r y a n d used f o r t h i s s t u d y . G r o u n d n u t t r e a t e d
w i t h d i f f e r e n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f the p l a n t e x t r a c t s w e r e
I m p a c t of Some Plant Products on the
p l a c e d separately i n the beaker attached i n each a r m . T h e n
Behavior of Tribolium castaneum in
t h e y w e r e c l o s e d w i t h m u s l i n c l o t h . S i x t y T . castaneum
a d u l t s w e r e i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e o l f a c t o m e t e r t h r o u g h the
G r o u n d n u t Seed
o p e n i n g present i n t h e m i d d l e c h a m b e r a n d c l o s e d w i t h
m u s l i n c l o t h a n d a l l o w e d f o r 3 h . A f t e r 3 h , the n u m b e r o f
K
Sahayaraj
and
M
G
Paulraj
(Plant
Protection
beetles present i n each c o n c e n t r a t i o n w a s r e c o r d e d . F r o m
Research Unit, Department of Zoology, St. Xavier's College,
the observed v a l u e the repellence was observed and d e f i n e d
Palayankottai 627 002, T a m i l Nadu, India)
i n t e r m s o f excess p r o p o r t i o n i n d e x ( E P I ) a c c o r d i n g t o
S a k u m a and F u k a m i ( 1 9 8 5 ) . E a c h experiment was replicated
Groundnut
(Arachis
hypogaea) is s t o r e d b o t h as p o d s
s i x t i m e s w i t h d i f f e r e n t insects a n d also g r o u n d n u t seeds
a n d seeds. B o t h f o r m s are s u s c e p t i b l e d u r i n g s t o r a g e t o
treated w i t h plant extracts. T h e EPI is defined as f o l l o w s :
attack b y insects, w h i c h cause a p p r o x i m a t e l y 6 - 1 0 % damage
i n s t o r e d seed ( S r i v a s t a v a 1 9 7 0 ) . T h e r e d f l o u r b e e t l e ,
Tribolium castaneum Hcrbst is o n e of t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t
EPI = NS - N C / N S + NC
pests o f s t o r e d g r o u n d n u t seeds ( W i g h t m a n a n d R a n g a
R a o 1 9 9 3 ) . A s g r o u n d n u t i s used f o r h u m a n f o o d , t h e use
w h e r e NS = n u m b e r of animals in the sample side and
o f i n s e c t i c i d e s a g a i n s t t h i s s t o r e d p r o d u c t pest m a y r e p -
N C = n u m b e r o f a n i m a l s i n t h e c o n t r o l side. I n a n o t h e r
resent a h e a l t h h a z a r d . U s e o f p l a n t - d e r i v e d p e s t i c i d e s t o
e x p e r i m e n t , ten a d u l t s w e r e p l a c e d i n a p l a s t i c c o n t a i n e r
m a n a g e s t o r e d p r o d u c t pests i s a t r a d i t i o n a l m e t h o d t h a t
( 2 5 0 m l c a p a c i t y ) and p r o v i d e d w i t h 1 g o f g r o u n d n u t seed
i s e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y safe a n d e c o n o m i c a l l y v i a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e
treated w i t h different concentrations of each plant extract
to
separately. C o n t r o l categories w e r e p r o v i d e d w i t h w a t e r
a f f e c t m o r e t h a n 2 0 0 insect pests ( W a r t h e n 1989, N a t i o n a l
treated g r o u n d n u t seeds. M o r t a l i t y w a s r e c o r d e d i n a l l
Research C o u n c i l 1992) i n c l u d i n g several stored product
t h e c a t e g o r i e s f o r e v e r y 24 h up to 7 d a y s . S i x r e p l i c a t i o n s
pests ( J a c o b s o n 1 9 8 8 ) . I n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y , t h e l e a f e x -
w e r e m a i n t a i n e d i n each c a t e g o r y .
method.
tracts
Azadirachta
of A.
indica,
indica ( n e e m )
Vitex
has
negundo,
been
gigantea,
EPI values ranged f r o m + 1 t o - 1 . These terms s i m p l y
a n d b u l b e x t r a c t of Allium cepa ( o n i o n ) w e r e e v a l u a t e d
express p o l a r i t y of the d i r e c t i o n a l choice. Positive and
f o r their repellent and insecticidal properties on the adults
negative values indicated p o s i t i v e and negative a p p r o a c h e s
of T.
r e s p e c t i v e l y . T h e results o f the e x p e r i m e n t are s u m m a r i z e d
castaneum in g r o u n d n u t seeds.
Calotropis
found
I A N 20, 2000
75
T a b l e 1. I m p a c t of plant products on the excess p r o p o r t i o n
References
index ( E P I ) b e h a v i o r of Tribolium castaneum.
Jacobson, M . 1988. Focus o n p h y t o c h e m i c a l pesticides.
EPI
V o l . 1 . T h e n e e m tree. F l o r i d a , U S A : C R C Press.
Plant
0.5
1
4
2
1
6
N a t i o n a l Research C o u n c i l . 1992. N e e m : A tree f o r s o l v i n g
Azadirachta
indica
Vitex negundo
Allium
cepa
Calotropis
1.
-0.953 -1.000
-0.893 -0.933
-0.319 -0.470 -0.675
-0.783 -0.900
-0.507 -0.628
-0.084 -0.225 -0.406
gigantea
Concentration
-0.616 -0.813 -0.881
-0.382 -0.601 -0.739
(%)
of plant
global problems. Washington, D C , U S A : National A c a d e m y
Press.
S a h a y a r a j , K. 1998. Antifeedant effect of some plant extracts
on the A s i a n a r m y w o r m , Spodoptera litura (Fab.). C u r r e n t
product.
Science 7 4 ( 6 ) : 5 2 3 - 5 2 5 .
i n T a b l e 1 w h i c h s h o w s t h a t t h e insect a v o i d e d f e e d i n g o n
groundnut
A.
seed
sprayed
cepa, a n d C.
that
A.
71
indica
castaneum
with
A.
indica,
V.
negundo,
gigantea. T h e r e s u l t s c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e d
was
the
followed
C. gigantea. T h e E P I
most
by
V.
effective
negundo,
repellent
A.
cepa,
for
and
values f o r all the plant products
S a i n , N . , and M e l o a n , C . E . 1986. C o m p o u n d s f r o m leaves
of b a y
(Laurus
nobilis
Linn.)
as
repellents
for
Tribolium
castaneum (Hcrbst) w h e n a d d e d t o w h e a t f l o u r . J o u r n a l o f
Stored P r o d u c t Research 2 2 ( 3 ) : 1 4 1 - 1 4 4 .
S a k u m a , M . , and F u k a m i , H . 1985. T h e linear track o l f a c tometer:
An
assay
device
for
taxes
of the
German
used i n t h i s s t u d y s h o w e d n e g a t i v e v a l u e s . S e n g u t t u v a n
cockroach,
et al. ( 1 9 9 5 ) r e p o r t e d t h a t n e e m a n d Vitex l e a f p o w d e r s
aggregation p h e r o m o n e . A p p l i e d E n t o m o l o g y a n d Z o o l o g y
were
74(6):523-525.
most
effective
to
control
Corcyra
cephalonica
Blattella
germanica
(Linn.)
toward
their
stainton in s t o r e d g r o u n d n u t s .
I n t h e present i n v e s t i g a t i o n , t h e r e p e l l e n c e increased
as the concentration increased. Sain and M e l o a n ( 1 9 8 6 )
r e p o r t e d t h a t p o w d e r of Laurus nobilis leaves a c t e d as a
r e p e l l e n t to T. castaneum. H o w e v e r , the m o r t a l i t y e x p e r i -
S e n g u t t u v a n , T . , A b d u l k a r e e m , A . , and R a j e n d r a m , R .
1995. E f f e c t s o f p l a n t p r o d u c t s a n d e d i b l e o i l s against r i c e
moth
Corcyra cephalonica Stainton
in
stored
groundnuts.
J o u r n a l o f S t o r e d P r o d u c t Research 3 1 ( 3 ) : 2 0 7 - 2 1 0 .
m e n t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t a l l t h e f o u r p l a n t s tested here d i d n o t
S r i v a s t a v a , A . S . 1 9 7 0 . I m p o r t a n t i n s e c t pests o f s t o r e d
cause a n y m o r t a l i t y on T. castaneum d u r i n g t h e o b s e r v e d
oilseeds i n I n d i a . I n t e r n a t i o n a l Pest C o n t r o l 1 2 : 1 8 - 2 0 .
p e r i o d . I t i s c o n c l u d e d t h a t a l l the p l a n t s tested i n t h i s
s t u d y h a v e r e p e l l e n t p r o p e r t y a g a i n s t T. castaneum a n d
c o u l d b e used t o p r o t e c t t h e s t o r e d g r o u n d n u t seeds f r o m
T.
castaneum d a m a g e .
Warthen, J.D.
1989. N e e m (Azadirachta indica A. Juss.):
O r g a n i s m s a f f e c t e d and reference list update. P r o c e e d i n g s
o f E n t o m o l o g i c a l Society o f Washington 9 1 : 3 6 7 - 3 88.
W i g h t m a n , J . A . , and R a n g a R a o , G . V . 1993. A g r o u n d n u t
A c k n o w l e d g m e n t . T h e authors w i s h t o t h a n k the P r i n c i p a l ,
insect identification h a n d b o o k f o r India. I n f o r m a t i o n B u l l e t i n
and Prof. M T h o m a s Punithan ( H e a d , Department of
n o . 3 9 . Patancheru 5 0 2 3 2 4 , A n d h r a Pradesh, I n d i a : I n t e r -
Z o o l o g y ) , St. X a v i e r ' s C o l l e g e , T a m i l N a d u , I n d i a f o r the
n a t i o n a l C r o p s Research Institute f o r the S e m i - A r i d T r o p i c s .
laboratory facilities and encouragement.
64 pp.
76
I A N 20, 2000
Agronomy
Field Evaluation of Plant G r o w t h promoting Rhizobacteria of Groundnut
R Dey, K K Pal, S M C h a u h a n , and D M Bhatt
(National Research Centre for Groundnut, Ivnagar Road,
PB No. 5, Junagadh 362 001, Gujarat, India)
D i r e c t use o f m i c r o o r g a n i s m s t o p r o m o t e p l a n t g r o w t h
and to c o n t r o l plant pests continues to be an area of r a p i d l y
e x p a n d i n g research. T h e a b i l i t y o f specific root c o l o n i z i n g
bacteria o r r h i z o b a c t e r i a t o increase g r o w t h and y i e l d o f
c r o p plants c u r r e n t l y is a t t r a c t i n g considerable a t t e n t i o n .
B e n e f i c i a l f r e e - l i v i n g s o i l bacteria isolated f r o m the r h i z o sphere, w h i c h have been s h o w n t o i m p r o v e p l a n t health
or increase y i e l d , are u s u a l l y referred to as p l a n t g r o w t h p r o m o t i n g r h i z o b a c t e r i a ( P G P R ) ( K l o e p p e r and S c h r o t h
1978), o r b y one g r o u p o f w o r k e r s i n C h i n a a s y i e l d increasing bacteria ( Y I B ) ( T a n g 1994).
T h e r e has been, since the 1990s, a fast e m e r g i n g trend
t o use the b e n e f i c i a l effect o f these bacteria. M o s t o f the
r e p o r t e d w o r k has been o n other crops i n c l u d i n g oilseed
c r o p s such as c a n o l a ( K l o e p p e r et a l . 1988). H o w e v e r ,
reports o f P G P R i n g r o u n d n u t are scanty A t the N a t i o n a l
Research Centre for G r o u n d n u t ( N R C G ) , Junagadh, India,
i s o l a t i o n o f PGPR f r o m g r o u n d n u t rhizosphere was done
b y A C C ( 1 - a m i n o c y c l o p r o p a n e - 1 -carboxylate) deaminase
activity using A C C (Sigma) as the sole source of n i t r o g e n ( N )
(Jacobson et a l . 1994). U s i n g this a p p r o a c h , 233 isolates
o f PGPR were obtained f r o m groundnut rhizosphere. O f these
cultures, on the basis of g e r m i n a t i n g seed bioassay
( G e r h a r d s o n et a l . 1985) in water agar m e d i u m at 2 8 ± 2 ° C
f o r 7 days, n i n e cultures w e r e selected w h i c h increased
the r o o t g r o w t h s i g n i f i c a n t l y . In the present study, an
e f f o r t has been made to evaluate the effects of these P G P R
i n i n f l u e n c i n g the g r o w t h , y i e l d , a n d n u t r i e n t u p t a k e o f
g r o u n d n u t under f i e l d c o n d i t i o n s . A f i e l d t r i a l was c o n d u c t e d d u r i n g the r a i n y season of 1999 in 5 m x 5 m p l o t s
in a r a n d o m i z e d c o m p l e t e b l o c k design w i t h 10 treatments
a n d f o u r r e p l i c a t i o n s . T h e f i e l d s o i l was b l a c k calcareous
h a v i n g p H o f 7.9, organic carbon content o f 0.52%, available
p h o s p h o r u s ( P ) content o f 1 0 ( ± 1 . 2 ) k g ha -1 , and a v a i l a b l e
p o t a s s i u m ( K ) o f 2 4 0 ( ± 1 4 . 6 ) k g h a - 1 a t the t i m e o f s o w i n g .
I n the f i e l d , n o r m a l doses o f f e r t i l i z e r s [ 2 0 k g N h a - 1 i n the
f o r m o f a m m o n i u m sulphate and 4 0 k g P 2 O,ha - 1 i n the f o r m
o f single superphosphate (SSP)] were used. G r o u n d n u t
c u l t i v a r , G G 2 , was used f o r f i e l d t r i a l s . B a c t e r i a l c u l t u r e
was a p p l i e d as seed treatment u s i n g l o g phase c u l t u r e s
[ 4 8 h g r o w t h , o p t i c a l density ( O D ) 1.2 at 6 0 0 n m , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 10 6 c o l o n y f o r m i n g u n i t s ( c f u ) seed - 1 ]. N o d u l e
d r y mass of 10 plants sampled r a n d o m l y f r o m each replicat i o n was recorded at 45 days after s o w i n g ( D A S ) a n d o t h e r
parameters such as d r y p l a n t b i o m a s s ( 1 0 p l a n t s w e r e
randomly sampled from each replication), pod yield (measured
per n r i n each r e p l i c a t i o n ) , a n d n u t r i e n t u p t a k e w e r e
estimated at the t i m e of harvest. T h e N and P contents in
shoot and seed were determined f r o m the same harvested
materials s a m p l e d for plant biomass.
In the s e e d l i n g bioassay, a l l the PGPR isolates s i g n i f i c a n t l y increased the r o o t l e n g t h ( T a b l e 1). A l l the c u l t u r e s
were identified as Pseudomonas spp. Bacterial cultures were
identified by p e r f o r m i n g several m o r p h o l o g i c a l , p h y s i o l o g i c a l , and b i o c h e m i c a l tests a c c o r d i n g t o the d e s c r i p t i o n o f
the 9th edition of Bergey's M a n u a l of Systematic Bacteriology
( K r i e g e t a l . 1984). M a j o r i t y o f t h e m w e r e Pscudomonas
fluoresceins. Three of these cultures, PGPR 1, P G P R 2, and
P G P R 4 ( a l l fluorescent p s e u d o m o n a d s ) , w e r e the best in
p r o d u c i n g siderophores [ 1 0 m m , 15.2 m m , and 2 4 m m o f
orange halos in C h r o m a z o l e S ( C A S ) agar plates ( S c h w y n
and Neilands 1987) after 72 h of g r o w t h ] , indole acetic acid
( I A A ) (Sarwar and K r e m e r 1995) ( 3 . 6 , 7.8, and 9.3 m g L - 1
respectively after 24 h), and solubilizing inorganic phosphate
( P i k o v s k a y a 1948, G a u r 1990) ( 4 8 . 5 2 , 16.6, and 6 0 m g
100mL - 1 b r o t h r e s p e c t i v e l y after 72 h) ( T a b l e 1). These
isolates w e r e also i n h i b i t o r y in v i t r o to Aspergillus flavus
[produced 14, 13.4, and 14 mm of inhibition zones respectively
in K i n g ' s B ( K i n g et al. 1954) after three d a y s ] . T h e f i e l d
c r o p was harvested at 1 10 D A S w h e n the c r o p was f u l l y
m a t u r e . A f t e r d r y i n g the pods u n d e r the sun, y i e l d was
r e c o r d e d . B a c t e r i z a t i o n o f g r o u n d n u t w i t h P G P R isolates
PGPR 1, PGPR 2, PGPR 3, PGPR 4, PGPR 5, and P G P R 6
resulted i n s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r p o d y i e l d s ( 1 4 . 7 % t o
2 5 . 5 % ) w h i l e the three r e m a i n i n g treatments r e c o r d e d
yields at par w i t h that of the c o n t r o l (Table 2). Plant biomass
data s h o w e d a s i m i l a r trend t o that o f the p o d y i e l d . I n o c u l a t i o n of P G P R 1, PGPR 2, and PGPR 4 gave significantly
h i g h e r plant biomass as c o m p a r e d to that of the c o n t r o l
w h i l e other treatments r e c o r d e d biomass y i e l d a t par w i t h
that o f c o n t r o l . A l l the i n o c u l a t e d treatments h a d better
n o d u l a t i o n and s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r n o d u l e d r y mass as
c o m p a r e d to the c o n t r o l . It was observed that i n o c u l a t i o n
w i t h PGPR isolates resulted in enhanced N c o n t e n t in the
shoots a n d seeds. T h e r e was s i g n i f i c a n t increase in the N
content o f shoot a n d seed w h e n i n o c u l a t e d w i t h P G P R 1 ,
P G P R 2, and P G P R 4 ( T a b l e 2 ) . T h e other treatments w e r e
a t p a r w i t h t h a t o f the c o n t r o l . T r e a t m e n t w i t h P G P R
isolates resulted in better m o b i l i z a t i o n and a v a i l a b i l i t y of P
to the plants as depicted by the P content of shoot and
I A N 20, 2000 77
seed. T h e P c o n t e n t o f s h o o t a n d seed g a v e s i g n i f i c a n t
b y P G P R i s o l a t e s . I n t h e f i e l d , best r e s u l t w a s o b t a i n e d
i n c r e a s e o v e r t h e c o n t r o l d u e t o seed b a c t e r i z a t i o n w i t h
when inoculated w i t h PGPR 1, PGPR 2, and PGPR 4.
Solubilization of iron by m i c r o b i a l siderophores and P
P G P R 1, PGPR 2, and PGPR 4 (Table 2).
T h e e x p e r i m e n t was conducted in a soil, deficient in P.
h a v e b e e n f o u n d t o increase c r o p y i e l d s u b s t a n t i a l l y
Even applied P is fixed as t r i - c a l c i u m phosphate. The pH
( B r o w n 1974, W a n i 1980, K l o e p p e r e t a l . 1988, G l i d e 1995).
(7.9) of the soil was suitable for excretion of siderophore
Fluorescent
pseudomonads
having
ACC
deaminase
T a b l e 1 . G e r m i n a t i n g g r o u n d n u t seed bioassay a n d q u a n t i f i c a t i o n o f p l a n t g r o w t h - p r o m o t i n g a t t r i b u t e s o f selected
P G P R isolates 1 .
Phosphate
I n h i b i t i o n zone
Root length o f
Siderophore
IAA-like
solubilization 4
(diameter) against
seedling
diameter 2
substances 3
(mg 100mL-1
Isolate
(cm)
(mm)
( m g L -1 )
broth)
(mm)
Control
6.03
NR
NR
4.7
NR
NR
Aspergillus
flavus
Culture identification
PGPR 1
8.40
10.0
3.6
48.5
14.0
Pse
PGPR 2
9.10
15.2
7.8
16.6
13.4
Pseudomonas
PGPR 3
7.90
-ve
-ve
-ve
-ve
Pseudomonas
PGPR 4
8.87
24.0
9.3
60.0
14.0
Pseudomonas
PGPR 5
8.03
8.8
-ve
38.6
11.2
Pseudomonas
fluorescens
PGPR 6
7.97
9.2
3.9
-ve
12.6
Pseudomonas
fluorescens
PGPR 7
9.00
19.0
11.8
-ve
-ve
Pseudomonas
PGPR 8
8.07
8.6
-ve
-ve
-ve
Pseudomonas
sp
7.6
9.0
-ve
23.8
-ve
Pseudomonas
sp
0.58
-
-
-
-
PGPR 9
C D (P = 0.05)
1.
P G P R = Plant g r o w t h - p r o m o t i n g r h i z o b a c t e r i a ; NR = N o t relevant; -ve = the
2.
O r a n g e h a l o o n C h r o m a z o l e S ( C A S ) agar after 7 2 h o f g r o w t h .
Data
represent
average
of three
replications
repeated
udomonas fluorescens
fluorescens
sp
fluorescens
fluorescens
-
isolate(s) d i d not express the p a r t i c u l a r character.
thrice.
3.
I A A = I n d o l e acetic a c i d ; data recorded after 24 h of g r o w t h .
4.
After 72 h of growth.
T a b l e 2 . E f f e c t o f P G P R o n t h e g r o w t h , y i e l d , a n d n u t r i e n t u p t a k e i n g r o u n d n u t c u l t i v a r G G 2 d u r i n g 1 9 9 9 r a i n y season
u n d e r f i e l d conditions 1 .
N content (%)
Isolate
Pod y i e l d
D r y biomass
N o d u l e dry mass
( k g ha-')
(g plant -1 )
( m g plant - 1 )
1872
Control
17.9
86.4
Shoot
2.15
P content (%)
at harvest
at harvest
Seed
4.18
Shoot
0.19
Seed
0.28
PGPR 1
2350
24.5
116.4
2.37
4.66
0.28
0.37
PGPR 2
2320
27.3
103.0
2.37
4.60
0.23
0.34
0.31
PGPR 3
2170
21.5
91.4
2.29
4.07
0.20
PGPR 4
2315
24.5
103.4
2.37
4.62
0.23
0.37
PGPR 5
2157
19.1
108.0
2.31
3.98
0.22
0.35
PGPR 6
2175
20.9
104.2
2.23
4.13
0.20
0.30
PGPR 7
2045
20.5
108.1
2.22
4.16
0.19
0.31
PGPR 8
PGPR 9
1955
18.5
105.2
2.28
4.20
0.18
0.29
1945
19.5
95.6
2.59
4.07
0.22
0.33
258
4.7
0.21
0.35
0.03
0.05
C D (P = 0.05)
1.
P G P R = Plant g r o w t h - p r o m o t i n g rhizobacteria; N = N i t r o g e n ; P = Phosphorus.
Data
78
5.15
represent
average
I A N 20, 2000
of four
replications.
a c t i v i t y , phosphate s o l u b i l i z i n g a b i l i t y , a n d I A A a n d
s i d e r o p h o r e p r o d u c i n g characters h a v e been f o u n d t o
e n h a n c e g r o u n d n u t g r o w t h u n d e r p o t t e d c o n d i t i o n s (Pal
e t a l . 1 9 9 9 ) . A C C deaminase a c t i v i t y o f P G P R isolate
Pseudomonas putida GR 12-2 has been reported to p r o m o t e
g r o w t h o f c a n o l a s e e d l i n g ( G l i c k e t a l . 1995). I f A C C
deaminase a c t i v i t y a l o n e w a s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r better r o o t
g r o w t h a n d y i e l d i n g r o u n d n u t , a l l isolates w o u l d have
p r o d u c e d s i m i l a r results. B u t this d i d n o t happen t h o u g h
a l l the n i n e isolates h a d A C C deaminase a c t i v i t y . A C C
deaminase a c t i v i t y m i g h t have p r o d u c e d better r o o t g r o w t h
i n the i n i t i a l stages o f c r o p g r o w t h , b u t o t h e r attributes
such a s I A A , s i d e r o p h o r e p r o d u c t i o n , a n d phosphate
s o l u b i l i z a t i o n b y the P G P R isolates m i g h t have h e l p e d i n
better n u t r i e n t m o b i l i z a t i o n , a v a i l a b i l i t y , a n d thus uptake
b y the plants. H o w e v e r , a l l these parameters need t o b e
m e a s u r e d i n further studies. S y n e r g i s t i c effect was f o u n d
between native Bradyrhizobium f l o r a and P G P R as n o d u l a t i o n w a s enhanced due t o i n o c u l a t i o n o f P G P R . A l t h o u g h ,
i n v o l v e m e n t o f A C C deaminase a c t i v i t y i n e n h a n c i n g
p l a n t g r o w t h a n d y i e l d o f g r o u n d n u t c a n n o t b e r u l e d out,
coordinated expression o f m u l t i p l e plant g r o w t h - p r o m o t i n g
traits c o u l d h a v e been i n v o l v e d i n the o v e r a l l p l a n t
g r o w t h p r o m o t i o n o f g r o u n d n u t b y these P G P R isolates.
M u t a t i o n a l analyses o f a l l these traits a n d subsequent
e v a l u a t i o n o n l y can u n r a v e l the exact mechanisms o f these
P G P R isolates i n s t i m u l a t i n g g r o u n d n u t g r o w t h and y i e l d .
W o r k has been i n i t i a t e d i n this d i r e c t i o n i n o u r l a b o r a t o r y .
References
B r o w n , M . E . 1974. Seed a n d r o o t b a c t e r i z a t i o n . A n n u a l
Review of Phytopathology 12:181-197.
G a u r , A . C . 1990. Phosphate s o l u b i l i z i n g m i c r o - o r g a n i s m s
as biofertilizer. New Delhi, India: Omega Scientific
Publishers.
G e r h a r d s o n , B., A l s t r o m , S., and R a m e r t , B. 1985. Plant
r e a c t i o n s t o i n o c u l a t i o n s o f r o o t s w i t h f u n g i a n d bacteria.
Phytopathology Zeitschrift 114:108-117.
G l i c k , R . B . 1995. T h e enhancement o f p l a n t g r o w t h
p r o m o t i o n b y free l i v i n g b a c t e r i a . C a n a d i a n J o u r n a l o f
Microbiology 41:109-117.
G l i c k , R . B . , K a r a t u r o v i c , D . M . , and N e w e l l , P . C . 1995. A
n o v e l procedure for rapid isolation o f plant g r o w t h p r o m o t i n g
pseudomonads. Canadian Journal o f M i c r o b i o l o g y 4 1 :
533-536.
Jacobson, C . B . , P a s t e r n a k , J.J., and G l i c k , R . B .
1994. Partial p u r i f i c a t i o n a n d c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n o f 1 a m i n o c y c l o p r o p a n e - 1 -carboxylate deaminase from P G P R ,
Pseudomonas putida GR 12-2. Canadian Journal of M i c r o biology 40:1019-1025.
K i n g , E . O . , W a r d , M . K . , and R a n e y , D . E . 1954. T w o
simple media for demonstration o f p y o c y a n i n and f l u o rescein. Journal o f Laboratory and C l i n i c a l M e d i c i n e
44:301-307.
K l o e p p e r , J . W . , H u m e , D . J . , Scher, F . M . , Singleton, C . ,
T i p p i n g , B., Laliberte, M . , F r a w l e y , K . , K u t c h a w , T . ,
Simonson, C , Lifshitz, R , Zalesua, I . , and Lee, L . 1988.
Plant g r o w t h p r o m o t i n g bacteria o n c a n o l a (rapeseed).
Plant Disease 7 2 : 4 2 - 4 6 .
K l o e p p e r , J . W . , and S c h r o t h , M . N . 1978. Plant g r o w t h
p r o m o t i n g r h i z o b a c t e r i a o n r a d i s h . Pages 8 7 9 - 8 8 2 i n
P r o c e e d i n g s o f the 4 t h C o n f e r e n c e o n Plant P a t h o g e n i c
B a c t e r i a , V o l . 2 ( S t a t i o n de P a t h o g e n i c V e g e t a l e et
P h y t o b a c t e r i o l o g i c , ed.). A n g e r s , G e r m a n y : I N R A .
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B e r g e y ' s m a n u a l o f systematic b a c t e r i o l o g y . 9 th e d i t i o n ,
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Pal, K . K . , R i n k u Dey, Bhatt, D . M . , and C h a u h a n , S . 1 9 9 9 .
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g r o w t h - p r o m o t i n g r h i z o b a c t e r i a . I n t e r n a t i o n a l Arachis
Newsletter 19:51-53.
P i k o v s k a y a , R . E . 1948. M o b i l i s a t i o n o f p h o s p h o r u s i n
s o i l i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h v i t a l a c t i v i t y o f some m i c r o b i a l
species. M i k r o b i o l o g i y a 1 7 : 3 6 2 - 3 7 0 .
Sarwar,
o f plant
derived
and Soil
M . , and K r e m e r , R . J . 1995. Enhanced suppression
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172:261-269.
S c h w y n , B., and N e i l a n d s , J . B . 1987. U n i v e r s a l c h e m i c a l
assay f o r d e t e c t i o n a n d d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f s i d e r o p h o r e s .
Analytical Biochemistry 160:47-56.
T a n g , W . H . 1994. Y i e l d - i n c r e a s i n g b a c t e r i a ( Y I B ) a n d
b i o c o n t r o l o f sheath b l i g h t o f r i c e . Pages 2 6 7 - 2 7 8 i n
I m p r o v i n g plant p r o d u c t i v i t y w i t h rhizosphere bacteria
( R y d e r , M . H . , Stephens, P . M . , a n d B o w e n , G . D . , eds.).
Adelaide, Australia: C o m m o n w e a l t h Scientific and Industrial
Research O r g a n i s a t i o n .
W a n i , S.P. 1980. S t u d i e s o n p h o s p h a t e s o l u b i l i z i n g
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University 5:144-147.
I A N 20, 2000 79
Performance of G r o u n d n u t Germplasm
and Cultivars under Saline W a t e r
I r r i g a t i o n in the Soils of M u n d r a in
G u j a r a t , India
recorded at final harvest ( 1 3 0 - 1 4 0 D A S ) and plant m o r t a l i t y
w a s c a l c u l a t e d b y the f o l l o w i n g f o r m u l a :
Field
(%)
P C Nautiyal 1 , A Bandyopadhyay 1 , V G Koradia 1 , and
M a d h u b h a i M a k a d 2 ( 1 . National Research Centre for
Groundnut, Ivnagar Road, PB N o . 5, Junagadh 362 001
Gujarat, India; 2. Progressive Farmer, and Coordinator,
Krishi V i g y a n Kendra, Mundra 370 4 2 1 , Gujarat, India)
In I n d i a about 7.1 m i l l i o n ha area is salt affected ( Y a d a v et
a l . 1979), o u t o f w h i c h 1.2 m i l l i o n h a c o m p r i s e saline soils
i n the coastal tracts o f G u j a r a t , w h e r e g r o u n d n u t ( A r a c h i s
hypogaea) is a m a j o r c r o p u n d e r c u l t i v a t i o n . I n f o r m a t i o n
o n t o l e r a n c e o f g r o u n d n u t c r o p t o v a r i o u s s a l i n i t y levels
is m e a g e r . Joshi et al. ( 1 9 9 4 ) r e p o r t e d that the vegetative
stage o f g r o u n d n u t c r o p can tolerate s a l i n i t y level o f E C e 8
d S m - 1 [electrical c o n d u c t i v i t y ( E C ) o f saturation e x t r a c t ) . I n
the K u t c h - B h u j r e g i o n o f n o r t h e r n G u j a r a t , g r o u n d n u t i s
the m o s t p r e f e r r e d c r o p by the farmers a n d is c u l t i v a t e d in
b o t h s u m m e r a n d r a i n y seasons. T h e a n n u a l average r a i n f a l l i n this r e g i o n i s v e r y l o w ( 2 5 0 - 3 0 0 m m ) and g r o u n d n u t
is cultivated, almost w h o l l y , w i t h irrigation. The major
source o f i r r i g a t i o n i s the w e l l s a n d due t o e x t e n s i v e use
o f w e l l - w a t e r for i r r i g a t i o n the s a l i n i t y l e v e l o f the w e l l w a t e r a n d s o i l is i n c r e a s i n g at an a l a r m i n g rate. T h e increasing s a l i n i t y levels are r e n d e r i n g the c u l t i v a t i o n o f
g r o u n d n u t d i f f i c u l t . T h e N a t i o n a l Research Centre f o r
G r o u n d n u t ( N R C G ) , Junagadh, Gujarat, therefore, t o o k u p
the w o r k o n m a n a g e m e n t o f this p r o b l e m a n d started
s c r e e n i n g g r o u n d n u t g e r m p l a s m a n d released c u l t i v a r s
for salinity tolerance. Experiments were conducted in collabor a t i o n w i t h the K r i s h i V i g y a n K e n d r a , M u n d r a , Gujarat.
D u r i n g February 1997, 100 g e r m p l a s m accessions w e r e
sown in a randomized block design ( R B D ) replicated
t w i c e , i n t w o - r o w p l o t s , each r o w 3 m i n l e n g t h w i t h
i n t e r r o w spacing of 45 c m . Seed was s o w n in each r o w at 10
c m spacing. A l l r e c o m m e n d e d a g r o n o m i c a l practices w e r e
f o l l o w e d to m a i n t a i n a healthy c r o p . T h e c r o p was i r r i g a t e d
w i t h saline w a t e r o f E C 3.5 d S m - 1 a n d p H 7 . 2 1 . T h e w e l l w a t e r used for i r r i g a t i o n w a s a n a l y z e d before c o n d u c t i n g
the e x p e r i m e n t s ( T a b l e 1). H o w e v e r , the s o i l o f the e x p e r i m e n t a l site was a n a l y z e d after c o n d u c t i n g the s u m m e r
c r o p p i n g season ( F e b r u a r y - J u n e 1 9 9 7 ) experiment. The
crop received 12 irrigations from s o w i n g t i l l m a t u r i t y . Observ a t i o n s o n f i e l d emergence was r e c o r d e d 3 0 days after
s o w i n g ( D A S ) , whereas plant stand and p o d y i e l d w e r e
80
I A N 20, 2000
P l a n t stand
emergence
at f i n a l
-
harvest ( % )
Plant m o r t a l i t y ( % ) =
x 100
F i e l d emergence ( % )
T w e n t y - n i n e genotypes h a v i n g >5 mature pods at harvest
w e r e s t u d i e d f o r the d e f i c i e n c y s y m p t o m , " h o l l o w h e a r t "
o f the c o t y l e d o n s , due t o s a l i n i t y ( b o r o n o r c a l c i u m o r
b o r o n and c a l c i u m c o m b i n e d d e f i c i e n c y ) a s r e p o r t e d b y
C o x and R e i d (1964) and R e i d and C o x (1973). W e observed
s y m p t o m s s i m i l a r t o those r e p o r t e d b y C o x a n d R e i d
( 1 9 6 4 ) : the inner surface o f the c o t y l e d o n s w e r e depressed
a n d d i s c o l o r e d a n d p l u m u l e was d a r k e n e d . F o r r e c o r d i n g
the d e f i c i e n c y s y m p t o m s , three plants f r o m the accessions
h a v i n g > 5 pods w e r e p i c k e d u p a n d 5 p o d s f r o m each
p l a n t w e r e shelled i m m e d i a t e l y . D e f i c i e n c y s y m p t o m s i n
the f o r m o f b l a c k spots o n the c o t y l e d o n s a n d d a r k e n e d
p l u m u l e w e r e r e c o r d e d . T h e data o n d e f i c i e n c y s y m p t o m s
were expressed on a scale of l o w , m e d i u m , and h i g h deficiency
( T a b l e 2 ) . Genotypes w i t h < 5 pods w i t h c o t y l e d o n s h a v i n g
b l a c k spots w e r e c l a s s i f i e d as + ( l o w d e f i c i e n c y ) , those
w i t h 6 to 10 such p o d s w e r e c l a s s i f i e d as ++ ( m e d i u m
deficiency), and those w i t h 11 to 15 such pods were classified
as + + + (high deficiency).
A l o n g w i t h 28 released cultivars, 20 germplasm accessions
h a v i n g p o d y i e l d m o r e than 1 g p l a n t - 1 in the p r e v i o u s
T a b l e 1 . C h e m i c a l analysis o f the w e l l - w a t e r used f o r
irrigation d u r i n g the s u m m e r a n d rainy cropping seasons
o f 1 9 9 7 , i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t t o screen g r o u n d n u t f o r
s a l i n i t y t o l e r a n c e conducted i n f a r m e r s ' fields a t
M u n d r a , G u j a r a t , India.
Character 1
Concentration/unit
Remarks
pH
EC
TDS
Calcium
Magnesium
Carbonate
Bicarbonate
Chloride
Sodium
Sodium adsorption ratio
Residual sodium carbonate
7.21
3.5 dS m -1
2240 mg L - 1
700 meq L-1
2.15 meq L-1
24.2 meq L-1
26.11 meq L-1
11.06
1.15 meq L-1
High
High
Medium
Medium
Low
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Satisfactory
1.
E C = E l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y ; T D S = T o t a l d i s s o l v e d salts.
T a b l e 2 . P l a n t m o r t a l i t y ( % ) , pod y i e l d , a n d deficiency symptoms o n the cotyledons o f some o f the g r o u n d n u t accessions
screened f o r s a l i n i t y t o l e r a n c e u n d e r saline w a t e r i r r i g a t i o n a t M u n d r a , G u j a r a t , I n d i a , s u m m e r a n d r a i n y c r o p p i n g
seasons o f 1 9 9 7 .
Deficiency
Pod y i e l d (g m - 2 )
Plant mortality (%)
symptoms
rating 1
Genotype
Summer
Rainy
Summer
I C G 1045
57.1
41.0
36.1
74.4
++
I C G 1467
40.0
52.3
50.0
47.0
I C G 920
43.2
43.5
37.5
49.2
+++
++
I C G 1017
24.2
46.1
27.7
58.5
++
I C G 1204
31.5
50.9
40.0
87.4
+++
I C G 881
23.6
30.0
50.0
55.0
++
I C G 1185
17.6
31.9
29.1
77.7
+++
I C G 1001
32.6
47.2
27.7
30.7
+
I C G 898
20.7
50.2
44.4
34.0
++
ICG 887
22.0
43.9
47.2
51.1
++
ICG 828
12.6
24.3
27.7
55.5
++
ICG 2106
53.3
69.2
27.7
40.7
ICG 1337
32.0
42.1
29.7
50.4
++
+
I C G 1273
32.7
47.6
27.7
72.5
+++
ICG 974
43.4
40.4
44.4
73.7
++
I C G 1673
54.5
62.1
27.7
27.3
++
ICG 1235
20.0
47.7
37.5
ICG 1237
42.8
39.4
30.5
101.4
82.9
++
Rainy
++
ICG 967
57.9
51.5
37.5
55.1
++
ICG 1465
36.5
45.8
36.1
80.0
++
±3.61
±3.11
±1.70
SE
1.
D e f i c i e n c y of b o r o n or c a l c i u m or c o m b i n a t i o n of both recorded in s u m m e r c r o p p i n g season:
±6.18
+ = L o w ; ++ = M e d i u m ; + + + = H i g h .
season e x p e r i m e n t w e r e also t e s t e d . T h e g e n o t y p e s w e r e
distinct. T h e deficiency symptoms rating of the cotyledons
s o w n i n the r a i n y season o f 1997 ( J u l y - N o v e m b e r ) , i n f i v e
recorded i n s u m m e r was l o w ( + ) i n I C G 1001 and I C G 1337,
r o w s , each 3 m in length, in the same plots w h e r e the p r e v i o u s
w h i l e i n m o s t o f t h e accessions tested i t w a s m e d i u m ( + + )
season e x p e r i m e n t was c o n d u c t e d . T h e same dataset, except
(Table 2).
the deficiency symptoms of cotyledons, was recorded.
I n the e x p e r i m e n t c o n d u c t e d d u r i n g r a i n y season w i t h
T h e E C o f i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r a n d t o t a l d i s s o l v e d salts
2 8 released c u l t i v a r s , T A G 2 4 s h o w e d the highest m o r t a l i t y
( T D S ) w e r e h i g h ( T a b l e 1). C o n s e q u e n t l y after c o n d u c t i n g
( 9 1 . 8 % ) w h i l e M 145 s h o w e d ( 3 4 . 6 % ) . Pod y i e l d of d i f f e r e n t
the s u m m e r season e x p e r i m e n t the soil EC 1 2 5 was also q u i t e
c u l t i v a r s also v a r i e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y a n d r a n g e d b e t w e e n 2 . 4
h i g h (0.65 dS n r 1 ) . T h e observations on the 20 germplasm
g m - 2 ( i n T A G 2 4 ) and 145.4 g m - 2 ( i n K a r a d 4 - 1 1 ) . In general,
a c c e s s i o n s w h i c h w e r e tested d u r i n g b o t h t h e s u m m e r
p o d y i e l d w a s h i g h i n V i r g i n i a t y p e s ( A r a c h i s hypogaea
a n d r a i n y c r o p p i n g seasons s h o w e d h i g h e r p l a n t m o r t a l i t y
subsp hypogaea v a r hypogaea), e . g . , T 28 ( 1 2 1 . 7 g m -1 ),
in the r a i n y season ( 2 4 . 3 - 6 9 . 2 % ) than in the s u m m e r c r o p p i n g
R S B 87 ( 1 1 0 . 4 g m - 2 ), P u n j a b 1 ( 1 0 8 . 5 g m - 2 ), a n d K a d i r i 2
season ( 1 2 . 6 - 5 7 . 9 % ) . H o w e v e r , t h e p o d y i e l d w a s h i g h e r
( 1 0 7 . 1 g m - 2 ) ( T a b l e 3).
( 2 7 - 1 0 1 . 4 g m - 2 ) i n the r a i n y season t h a n i n s u m m e r ( 2 7 . 7 -
T h i s study s h o w e d large g e n o t y p i c a n d seasonal v a r i a -
50 g m-2) ( T a b l e 2). In the s u m m e r crop p o d y i e l d was
t i o n s f o r s a l i n i t y t o l e r a n c e i n g r o u n d n u t accessions a n d
h i g h e s t ( 5 0 g n r 2 ) i n the g e n o t y p e s I C G 1467 a n d I C G 8 8 1 ,
cultivars. H o w e v e r , further screening for salinity tolerance
w h e r e a s i n t h e r a i n y season p o d y i e l d w a s h i g h e s t i n t h e
o f the large gene p o o l o f g r o u n d n u t , a n d detailed studies
g e n o t y p e I C G 1235 ( 1 0 1 . 4 g m - 2 ) , f o l l o w e d b y I C G 1204
o n t h e t o l e r a n c e m e c h a n i s m are r e q u i r e d t o u t i l i z e g e n e t i c
( 8 7 . 4 g n r 2 ) a n d I C G 1237 ( 8 2 . 9 g m - 2 ) . T h u s t h e seasonal
variability for salinity tolerance. Subsequent experiments
v a r i a t i o n f o r p o d y i e l d i n g r o u n d n u t accessions w a s q u i t e
c o n d u c t e d b y N R C G o n the a m e n d m e n t s o f s a l i n e s o i l b y
I A N 20, 2000
81
T a b l e 3 . P l a n t m o r t a l i t y a n d pod yield o f g r o u n d n u t culti-
Joshi, Y . C . , N a u t i y a l , P.C., and R a v i n d r a , V .
v a r s u n d e r saline w a t e r i r r i g a t i o n a t M u n d r a , G u j a r a t ,
Screening for salinity in groundnut
I n d i a d u r i n g r a i n y season 1 9 9 7 .
Food Legume Newsletter 2 1 : 7 - 8 .
Botanical
1
(Arachis
1994.
hypogaea).
Plant
Pod
R e i d , P . H . , a n d C o x , F . R . 1973. S o i l p r o p e r t i e s , m i n e r a l
mortality
yield
n u t r i t i o n a n d f e r t i l i z a t i o n p r a c t i c e s . Pages 2 7 1 - 2 9 7 i n
-2
Cultivar
type
(%)
(g m )
Peanuts c u l t u r e a n d uses. S t i l l w a t e r , O k l a h o m a , U S A :
Karad 4-11
VR
39.9
145.4
A m e r i c a n Peanut Research and E d u c a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n .
Punjab 1
VR
42.9
108.5
RS 1
VR
38.9
103.8
Chitra
VR
47.2
102.3
Somnath
VR
50.9
90.0
M 335
VR
53.6
75.3
Kaushal
VR
41.7
62.1
UF-70-103
VR
62.8
57.4
D R G 17
VR
68.4
34.6
C S M G 84-1
VR
74.8
50.2
BG 2
VB
55.6
82.0
T 28
VB
45.6
121.7
RSB 87
VB
43.4
110.4
Kadiri 2
VB
37.1
107.1
T M V 10
VB
36.9
95.6
T 64
VB
50.6
92.0
Y a d a v , J.S.P., B a n d y o p a d h y a y , A . K . , R a o , K . V . G . , S i n h a ,
T . S . , and B i s w a s , C . R . 1 9 7 9 , C o a s t a l saline s o i l s o f I n d i a .
B u l l e t i n N o . 5 . K a r n a l , I n d i a : C e n t r a l S o i l S a l i n i t y Research
Institute, pp. 1-10.
Yield M a x i m i z a t i o n of Postrainy
Season G r o u n d n u t through Polythene
F i l m M u l c h Technology in Western
M a h a r a s h t r a , India
VB
56.1
72.0
D K Kathmale, M S Ramble, J D Jadhav, and R C Patil
BG 3
VB
56.9
68.2
(Agricultural Research Station, K Digraj, Sangli 416 305,
M 145
VB
34.6
82.9
BAU
13
ALR 1
VB
56.8
60.3
ICGS 76
I C G V 86325
VB
60.8
43.5
VB
64.7
30.1
Kadiri 3
VB
70.2
28.1
Maharashtra, India)
The
average
productivity
of
summer
groundnut
in
Maharashtra state of I n d i a is 1.26 t ha - 1 , w h i l e that in w e s t e r n
ICGS 5
VB
76.5
21.8
M a h a r a s h t r a p l a i n z o n e is a b o u t 2.5 t ha - 1 . T h e area u n d e r
T G 26
SB
77.6
17.0
s u m m e r g r o u n d n u t in the r e g i o n is i n c r e a s i n g . In this
T A G 24
SB
91.8
2.4
region s u m m e r g r o u n d n u t is s o w n between 15 January
T G 22
SB
50.5
46.2
and 15 February d e p e n d i n g u p o n the p r e v a i l i n g temperatures.
SB
55.8
72.3
If the s o w i n g is delayed, the c r o p is l i k e l y to be affected
-
±1.82
±4.2
TKG
19A
SE
1.
VR = V i r g i n i a runner; VB = V i r g i n i a b u n c h ; and SB = Spanish
bunch.
by pre-monsoon or early m o n s o o n showers and if the
c r o p is s o w n early the crop is affected due to l o w temperature.
U s e o f p o l y t h e n e f i l m m u l c h c a n increase t h e s u m m e r
groundnut
production
by temperature
regulation
and
moisture conservation.
I n this s t u d y n o n - m u l c h g r o u n d n u t ( N M G ) , straw m u l c h
groundnut ( S M G ) , and polythene m u l c h groundnut ( P M G )
on flat bed ( F B ) as w e l l as on broad-bed and f u r r o w ( B B F )
g y p s u m and potassium as nutrients s h o w e d encouraging
results. U s e o f t o l e r a n t g e n o t y p e c o u p l e d w i t h s o i l a m e n d m e n t s appears t o b e a f e a s i b l e a p p r o a c h f o r c u l t i v a t i o n o f
g r o u n d n u t in the salt-affected costal regions.
s y s t e m s w e r e tested d u r i n g s u m m e r i n 1 9 9 8 a n d 1 9 9 9 a t
the A g r i c u l t u r a l Research Station, K D i g r a j , S a n g l i ,
Maharashtra. The experiment was laid out in a split plot
design w i t h six treatment c o m b i n a t i o n s , replicated f o u r
times. G r o u n d n u t variety I C G S 11 was s o w n in the first
w e e k o f F e b r u a r y w i t h 2 5 k g n i t r o g e n h a - 1 + 5 0 k g P2O5 h a - 1
References
as a b a s a l a p p l i c a t i o n . S o y b e a n s t r a w at 5 t ha - 1 ( t o t r e a t m e n t plots) was applied u n i f o r m l y o n the surface i m m e d i a t e l y
C o x , F.R., and R e i d , P . H . 1964, C a l c i u m - b o r o n n u t r i t i o n a s
after s o w i n g . A transparent p o l y t h e n e f i l m o f 9 0 0 m m
related to concealed damage in peanut. A g r o n o m y Journal
w i d t h and o f 0.01 m m thickness was spread over the soil
56:173-176.
s u r f a c e a n d b e f o r e s o w i n g s e c u r e d o n t h e sides o f t h e
82
I A N 20, 2000
T a b l e 1 . Effect o f seedbed f o r m s a n d mulches o n yield a n d yield a t t r i b u t e s o f s u m m e r g r o u n d n u t ( I C G S 11) i n Vertisols
of M a h a r a s h t r a , India in 1998 and 1999.
Y i e l d (t ha -1 )
Treatment
1
Pod
Haulm
Seed
Days to
Shelling
100-seed
SMS2
maturity
(%)
mass (g)
(%)
Seedbed forms
94
BBF
3.62
6.88
2.60
120
71.7
43.0
FB
3.28
6.69
2.35
120
71.5
44.0
94
±0.05
±1.06
±0.3
±0.9
±0.4
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
SE
C D (5%)
±0.2
NS 3
Mulches
NMG
2.86
6.39
2.03
120
70.5
41.1
93
SMG
3.43
6.70
2.46
116
71.9
43.5
94
112
4.06
7.27
2.93
72.4
45.9
95
±0.12
±0.05
±0.08
±0.13
±1.0
±0.5
C D (5%)
0.48
0.20
0.32
0.42
3.1
1.7
C V (%)
7.06
5.04
6.57
1.30
6.6
2.7
PMG
SE
Seedbed x mulch
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
1. B B F = B r o a d - b e d and f u r r o w ; FB = Flat bed; N M G = N o n - m u l c h g r o u n d n u t ; S M G = Straw m u l c h g r o u n d n u t ; P M G = Polythene m u l c h
groundnut.
2.
S M S = S o u n d m a t u r e seeds.
3.
NS = N o t significant
p l o t w i t h s o i l . S o w i n g w a s d o n e t h r o u g h the h o l e s m a d e
T a b l e 2. Effect of seedbed forms and mulches on economics
i n t h e f i l m a t 4 5 c m x 1 5 c m s p a c i n g . T w o sprays o f
o f g r o u n d n u t i n Vertisols o f M a h a r a s h t r a , I n d i a , d u r i n g
Monocrotophos® 36
s u m m e r in 1998 and 1999.
E C a t 0 . 0 5 % f o r the c o n t r o l o f
Spodoptera litura a n d o n e s p r a y of c a r b e n d a z i m at 0 . 0 5 %
Gross
Cost of
Net
returns
cultivation
returns
Benefitxost
(Rs ha -1 )
(Rs ha-1)
(Rs ha -1 )
ratio
BBF
54096
11013
43083
4.91
FB
49312
10527
38785
4.68
f o r t h e c o n t r o l o f l e a f spots w e r e g i v e n . D u r i n g the c r o p
g r o w t h p e r i o d 1 0 i r r i g a t i o n s w e r e a p p l i e d a t 10- t o 12-day
Treatment 1
intervals.
T h e results i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y i e l d o f s u m m e r g r o u n d n u t d i d n o t d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y due t o F B a n d B B F systems
( T a b l e 1). H o w e v e r , h i g h e r net r e t u r n s w e r e r e c o r d e d u n -
Seedbed f o r m s
der B B F t h a n F B systems ( T a b l e 2 ) . P M G r e c o r d e d s i g n i f i -
Mulches
cantly higher shelling percentage than N M G and S M G ,
NMG
43260
10091
33169
4.29
h i g h e r s o u n d m a t u r e seeds p e r c e n t a g e t h a n N M G , a n d
SMG
51335
10819
40516
4.75
g r e a t e r 100-seed mass t h a n N M G ( T a b l e 1). C h o i a n d
PMG
60501
13894
46607
4.35
C h u n g ( 1 9 7 7 ) r e p o r t e d 2 . 5 - 4 % h i g h e r s h e l l i n g percentage
a n d seed m a s s i n P M G t h a n N M G i n K o r e a .
P M G recorded m a x i m u m dry p o d y i e l d o f 4 . 1 1 h a - 1 and
d r y h a u l m y i e l d o f 7.4 t ha"
1
1.
B B F = Broad-bed and f u r r o w ; FB = Flat bed; N M G = N o n - m u l c h
groundnut; S M G = Straw m u l c h groundnut; P M G = Polythene
mulch
groundnut.
w h i c h is 4 1 . 9 % and 13.8%
higher than N M G and 19.8% and 4 . 8 % higher than S M G ,
respectively. P M G also recorded 8 days early m a t u r i t y
than N M G . H u e t al. (1996) reported 2 0 - 5 0 % higher yields
E c o n o m i c analysis revealed that greater gross returns,
i n P M G o v e r c o n t r o l i n C h i n a . D u r i n g 1998 g r o u n d n u t
net returns, and b e n e f i t x o s t ratio w e r e recorded i n B B F
trials o f the A l l I n d i a C o o r d i n a t e d Research Project c o n -
t h a n i n F B s y s t e m s . P M G r e c o r d e d g r e a t e r gross r e t u r n s
ducted at 9 locations recorded an average 2 2 . 6 % and
a n d net r e t u r n s t h a n S M G a n d N M G ( T a b l e 2 ) . H o w e v e r ,
2 1 . 6 % higher d r y p o d y i e l d i n B B F and F B respectively i n
greater b e n e f i t x o s t r a t i o w a s o b s e r v e d i n S M G f o l l o w e d
P M G than in control.
by P M G .
I A N 20, 2000
83
References
C h o i , B u u n g H a n , and C h u n g , K y u Y o n g . 1997. Effect o f
p o l y t h e n e - m u l c h i n g o n f l o w e r i n g and y i e l d o f groundnut
i n K o r e a . I n t e r n a t i o n a l Arachis N e w s l e t t e r 1 7 : 4 9 - 5 1 .
H u , W e n g u a n g , D u a n , S h u f e n , and Sui, Q i n g w e i . 1996.
H i g h - y i e l d technology for groundnut. International A r a chis N e w s l e t t e r 15 ( S u p p l e m e n t ) : 1-22.
Efficacy of Polythene M u l c h Technology
in I m p r o v i n g G r o w t h and Yield of
Postrainy Season G r o u n d n u t in West
Bengal, India
R C Samui and S B Ambhore (Department of
Agronomy, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya,
Krishiviswavidyalaya PO, Mohanpur, Nadia 741 252,
West Bengal, India)
A field e x p e r i m e n t was carried o u t at the i n s t r u c t i o n a l f a r m
o f the u n i v e r s i t y [ B i d h a n C h a n d r a K r i s h i V i s w a v i d y a l a y a
( B C K V ) ] located at M o h a n p u r in West Bengal during 1998/99
t o s t u d y the effect o f p o l y t h e n e f i l m m u l c h o n g r o w t h a n d
y i e l d o f p o s t r a i n y season ( r a b i ) g r o u n d n u t . C h o i a n d
C h u n g ( 1 9 9 7 ) studied the effect o f p o l y t h e n e m u l c h i n g o n
g r o w t h and p r o d u c t i v i t y of groundnut at Sawon in South
Korea. They observed 4 4 % higher p o d y i e l d and 5 6 %
h i g h e r seed y i e l d i n m u l c h e d o v e r n o n - m u l c h e d p l o t s .
B e n e f i c i a l effect o f m u l c h i n g has been reported b y different
w o r k e r s ( D e v i D a y a l et al. 1 9 9 1 , Gao 1993). In West Bengal,
rabi groundnut is generally g r o w n in riverbeds and rice
f a l l o w s u t i l i z i n g the residual m o i s t u r e ; h o w e v e r , l o w t e m perature d u r i n g the p o s t r a i n y season is a c o n s t r a i n t f o r
g r o w t h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t o f the c r o p . So, p o l y t h e n e f i l m
m u l c h m a y b e useful u n d e r such s i t u a t i o n s b y i n c r e a s i n g
soil temperature and conserving soil moisture. The experiment
was laid out in r a n d o m i z e d b l o c k design w i t h 6 replications.
T h e s o i l o f the e x p e r i m e n t a l f i e l d w a s s a n d y l o a m h a v i n g
p H 6.9, 0 . 8 % o r g a n i c c a r b o n , 0 . 0 5 8 % t o t a l n i t r o g e n ( N ) ,
39.8 kg ha - 1 a v a i l a b l e P 2 O 5 , a n d 155 kg ha - 1 a v a i l a b l e K 2 O .
G r o u n d n u t w a s f e r t i l i z e d w i t h 2 0 k g N , 6 0 k g P2O5, a n d 4 0
kg K 2 O ha -1 as basal a p p l i c a t i o n . G y p s u m at 2 5 0 kg ha - 1
was applied 5 0 % as basal and r e m a i n i n g 5 0 % as t o p dressing
a t 3 0 days after s o w i n g ( D A S ) . T h e treatments c o n s i s t e d :
(1) Broad-bed and f u r r o w ( B B F ) ( 6 0 cm bed w i t h 15 cm
f u r r o w o n b o t h sides a c c o m m o d a t i n g three r o w s o f g r o u n d n u t 3 0 c m apart) w i t h p o l y t h e n e f i l m m u l c h . T h e b e d w a s
c o v e r e d w i t h t h i n g a u g e p o l y t h e n e a n d the seeds w e r e
84 I A N 20, 2000
placed b y p i e r c i n g the polythene; (2) B B F w i t h o u t p o l y t h e n e
f i l m m u l c h ; ( 3 ) Flat b e d ( F B ) ( w i t h u n i f o r m r o w s , s p a c i n g
of 30 cm) w i t h polythene film m u l c h ; (4) FB w i t h o u t
p o l y t h e n e f i l m m u l c h . T h e g e n o t y p e used w a s I C G S 4 4 .
T h e s o w i n g w a s d o n e o n 1 0 N o v e m b e r 1998 a n d w a s
harvested o n 2 4 A p r i l 1999. I n case o f p o l y t h e n e m u l c h i n g ,
the p o l y t h e n e m u l c h was a p p l i e d t o the w h o l e f i e l d a n d i t
was k e p t u n t i l harvest of the c r o p . T h e p l o t size w a s 6 m x
5 m . T h e effect o f p o l y t h e n e m u l c h o n v a r i o u s g r o w t h a n d
y i e l d characters o f g r o u n d n u t i s discussed.
Effect on emergence and plant stand
Polythene film m u l c h i n g resulted in earlier emergence in
b o t h B B F and F B systems. Plant p o p u l a t i o n i m p r o v e d due
t o p o l y t h e n e f i l m m u l c h . T h e B B F m e t h o d recorded h i g h e r
p l a n t p o p u l a t i o n i n m u l c h e d c o n d i t i o n than i n n o n mulched condition.
Effect on growth characters
S h o o t d r y mass w a s s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r i n m u l c h e d p l o t s
than in n o n - m u l c h e d plots at 30 and 60 D A S . Root d r y
mass was also s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r i n m u l c h e d t h a n i n
n o n - m u l c h e d p l o t s a t 6 0 D A S . Such increase i n d r y m a t t e r
p r o d u c t i o n due t o m u l c h i n g w a s earlier r e p o r t e d b y W a n g
a n d L i ( 1 9 8 7 ) a n d M u e t a l . ( 1 9 8 4 ) . A t 9 0 D A S shoot a n d
r o o t d r y mass increased i n m u l c h e d c o n d i t i o n b u t the i n crease was s t a t i s t i c a l l y n o t s i g n i f i c a n t ( T a b l e 1).
N u m b e r o f n o d u l e s per p l a n t was h i g h e r i n m u l c h e d
plots w i t h b o t h B B F a n d F B m e t h o d s o v e r t h e i r respective
n o n - m u l c h e d treatments a t 3 0 a n d 6 0 D A S ; w h e r e a s the
increase i n n u m b e r o f n o d u l e s per p l a n t a t 9 0 D A S w a s
statistically not significant. The B B F plot w i t h m u l c h
recorded 3 5 . 1 2 % and 4 7 . 7 2 % increase i n n u m b e r o f nodules
per p l a n t a n d F B r e c o r d e d 2 2 . 4 9 % a n d 1 1 . 4 % increase
o v e r their n o n - m u l c h e d c o n d i t i o n s a t 3 0 a n d 6 0 D A S . T h e
increase i n n u m b e r o f n o d u l e s per p l a n t m a y b e d u e t o
increased s o i l temperature b y p o l y t h e n e f i l m m u l c h . M u e t
a l . ( 1 9 8 4 ) earlier have r e p o r t e d increased n o d u l a t i o n s a n d
N - f i x i n g efficiency o f Rhizobium,
M u l c h e d plots in FB system recorded significantly
h i g h e r n u m b e r o f branches per p l a n t t h a n i n n o n - m u l c h e d
p l o t s ( T a b l e 1). A t 3 0 D A S a n d 6 0 D A S b o t h B B F a n d F B
systems r e c o r d e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r n u m b e r o f branches
per p l a n t c o m p a r e d t o the n o n - m u l c h e d p l o t s .
Effect on flowering
F l o w e r i n g started 4 days earlier in m u l c h e d plots as c o m p a r e d
t o n o n - m u l c h e d p l o t s . N o n - m u l c h e d p l o t s t o o k 4 4 days t o
f l o w e r w h i l e the m u l c h e d plots t o o k 4 0 days t o f l o w e r . T h e
5 0 % f l o w e r i n g a n d 7 5 - 1 0 0 % f l o w e r i n g w e r e also recorded
7 days e a r l i e r i n m u l c h e d p l o t s . T h e earlier emergence o f
the seedlings m i g h t b e due t o i n c r e a s i n g s o i l t e m p e r a t u r e
b y m u l c h i n g technique. S i m i l a r results were earlier reported
by Ye et al. (1986) and C h o i and C h u n g (1997).
Effect on pod development and yield
A t 105 D A S , B B F m e t h o d w i t h m u l c h r e c o r d e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r n u m b e r o f pods per p l a n t c o m p a r e d t o the
n o n - m u l c h e d B B F b u t there w a s n o s i g n i f i c a n t difference
b e t w e e n m u l c h e d a n d n o n - m u l c h e d F B p l o t s . A t 105
D A S , the m u l c h e d B B F system r e c o r d e d 5 9 . 6 1 % h i g h e r
n u m b e r o f d e v e l o p e d p o d s per p l a n t c o m p a r e d t o n o n m u l c h e d B B F system whereas m u l c h e d F B system recorded
3 2 . 3 8 % h i g h e r n u m b e r o f developed pods per plant. S i m i l a r
results w e r e e a r l i e r r e p o r t e d b y Y e e t a l . ( 1 9 8 6 ) a n d C h o i
and C h u n g ( 1 9 9 7 ) .
P o l y t h e n e m u l c h i n g resulted i n h i g h e r p o d d r y mass
t h a n n o n - m u l c h e d plots i n b o t h B B F a n d F B systems a t 7 5
D A S b u t n o t a t 105 D A S . I n b o t h B B F a n d F B m e t h o d s
m u l c h treatments r e c o r d e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r p o d y i e l d s
t h a n n o n - m u l c h e d treatments ( T a b l e 2 ) . M u l c h t r e a t m e n t
r e c o r d e d 4 0 . 6 % a n d 5 0 . 9 % increase i n p o d d r y mass i n
B B F and FB methods respectively over non-mulch
t r e a t m e n t . S i m i l a r results were earlier recorded by Ye et al.
( 1 9 8 6 ) , D e v i D a y a l et al. ( 1 9 9 1 ) , and G a o ( 1 9 9 3 ) .
Effect on haulm yield
B o t h B B F and FB methods recorded higher dry haulm
y i e l d u n d e r m u l c h e d c o n d i t i o n s than n o n - m u l c h e d c o n d i t i o n s b u t the d i f f e r e n c e was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . M u l c h e d
c o n d i t i o n s r e c o r d e d 5 4 % increase i n d r y h a u l m y i e l d o f
groundnut over non-mulched condition in B B F method
a n d 4 1 . 4 3 % i n F B m e t h o d . C h o i and C h u n g ( 1 9 9 7 ) also
h a d r e p o r t e d such increase i n h a u l m y i e l d o f g r o u n d n u t
under mulched condition.
Effect on oil content, seed yield, and oil yield
O i l c o n t e n t i n g r o u n d n u t seeds i n m u l c h e d treatments
w a s s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r t h a n n o n - m u l c h e d treatments
( T a b l e 2 ) . T h e B B F system w i t h m u l c h r e c o r d e d highest
seed a n d o i l y i e l d f o l l o w e d b y F B w i t h m u l c h a n d l o w e s t
y i e l d s w e r e r e c o r d e d o n F B w i t h o u t m u l c h treatment. T h i s
increase i n y i e l d i n m u l c h treatment m i g h t b e due t o h i g h e r
s h e l l i n g percentage, 100-seed mass, d e v e l o p e d pods, a n d
o i l content in m u l c h e d plots than in non-mulched plots.
T h e results c o r r o b o r a t e the f i n d i n g s o f C h o i a n d C h u n g
( 1 9 9 7 ) w h o r e p o r t e d h i g h e r y i e l d o f g r o u n d n u t due t o
polyethylene m u l c h application.
I A N 20, 2000 85
T a b l e 2 . Effect o f polythene f i l m m u l c h i n g o n yield attributes o f g r o u n d n u t genotype I C G S 4 4 a t M o h a n p u r , I n d i a d u r i n g
1 9 9 8 / 9 9 p o s t r a i n y season.
D r y mass of
Pod
developed pods 2
yield
Developed
pods 2
1
-1
3688
45.6
1687
769
1518
2394
44.3
1139
504
2038
4399
45.6
1590
725
21.4
396.7
B B F without mulch
13.4
282.2
F B w i t h mulch
16.5
407.8
C V (%)
yield
2136
B B F w i t h mulch
C D (0.05)
Oil
yield
( k g ha-1)
( k g ha )
SEM
Seed
content
( k g ha )
(g m )
FB without mulch
Oil
yield
(%)
(number plant )
Treatment
Haulm
( k g ha )
-1
-2
-1
-1
16.2
296.7
1351
3111
44.6
972
434
±2.44
±40.81
±198.1
±470.4
±0.319
±168
±72.9
7.39
NS
596.9
1417.6
0.961
507
219.7
10
11
11
13
0.7
12
11
1.
B B F = Broad-bed and f u r r o w ; FB = Flat bed.
2.
A t 105 d a y s a f t e r s o w i n g .
T a b l e 3 . Economics o f polythene f i l m m u l c h i n g i n g r o u n d n u t .
Gross
Treatment
Cost o f
Net
return 2
cost 3
cultivation
return
Benefit:
(Rs)
(Rs)
(Rs)
(Rs)
cost ratio
B B F w i t h mulch
35693
6605
15105
20588
1.36
B B F without mulch
25254
5785
14285
10974
0.76
FB w i t h mulch
34381
4805
13305
21076
1.58
F B without mulch
22861
3985
12485
10376
0.83
Treatment
1
1.
B B F = Broad-bed and f u r r o w ; FB = Flat bed.
2.
C a l c u l a t e d b a s e d o n d a t a o n p o d y i e l d a n d h a u l m y i e l d g i v e n i n T a b l e 2 . V a l u e o f 100 k g p o d = R s 1 4 0 0 . 0 0 ; v a l u e o f 100 k g h a u l m =
3.
I n c l u d e s the c o s t o f p o l y t h e n e f i l m a n d its p l a c e m e n t a s w e l l a s the c o s t o f p r e p a r a t i o n o f b e d .
Rs
200.00.
Economics of polythene film mulching
Polythene f i l m m u l c h gave higher monetary return over
respective n o n - m u l c h t r e a t m e n t ( T a b l e 3). T h e B B F a n d F B
D e v i D a y a l , N a i k , P.R., and D o n g r e , B . N . 1 9 9 1 . E f f e c t o f
m u l c h i n g on soil temperature and groundnut y i e l d d u r i n g
r a b i - s u m m e r season. G r o u n d n u t N e w s 3 ( 1 ) : 1 6 .
systems u n d e r m u l c h e d c o n d i t i o n g a v e h i g h e r b e n e f i t : cost
r a t i o than under n o n - m u l c h e d c o n d i t i o n . It can be c o n c l u d e d
Gao, M.Z.
f r o m the experiment that polyethylene f i l m m u l c h i n g
g r o u n d n u t w i t h f a r m residues i n w i l l y r e g i o n . G a u n g d o n g
1993.
M u l c h i n g culture of spring sowing
improves g r o w t h characters, y i e l d attributes, and y i e l d o f
A g r i c u l t u r a l Science 1 : 1 3 - 1 4 .
g r o u n d n u t and m o n e t a r y return i n b o t h B B F and F B systems
o f groundnut c u l t i v a t i o n ; however, F B system w i t h m u l c h
M u , Y . Z . , P a n g , J . M . , and S h i , L . 1984. E f f e c t o f p o l y e t h -
was better than B B F system w i t h m u l c h .
y l e n e f i l m m u l c h i n g o n s o i l m i c r o b e s a n d Rhizobium sp.
and o n g r o u n d n u t y i e l d . Sharxi A g r i c u l t u r a l Science 3 : 1 7 - 2 1 .
W a n g , C . F . , and L i , F . Q . 1987. A s t u d y o f m u l c h i n g c u l t i -
References
v a t i o n o f rape. O i l C r o p s o f C h i n a 3 : 2 0 - 2 5 .
C h o i , B u u n g H a n , and C h u n g , K y u Y o n g . 1997. E f f e c t o f
Y e , B.R., G u o , L., C h e n , Z . X . , C h e n , C . A . , and H i , A . N .
polyethylene-mulching on flowering and yield of ground-
1986. A study of c u l t i v a t i o n of g r o u n d n u t m u l c h e d w i t h
n u t i n K o r e a . I n t e r n a t i o n a l Arachis N e w s l e t t e r 1 7 : 4 9 - 5 1 .
plastic f i l m s . G u a n g d o n g A g r i c u l t u r a l Science 6 : 1 3 - 1 6 .
86
I A N 20, 2000
Food Quality
T h e genotypes in the study i n c l u d e d one f o l i a r diseases
resistant m u t a n t ( 2 8 - 2 ) , t w o cross d e r i v a t i v e s ( D 3 9 d a n d
B 3 7 c ) in Spanish background, f i v e foliar diseases susceptible
c u l t i v a r s ( J L 2 4 , T M V 2 , T A G 2 4 , D h 8 , and R 8 8 0 8 ) , o n e
O i l Recovery and Quality as Influenced
f o l i a r diseases resistant c u l t i v a r ( I C G V 8 6 5 9 0 ) , and a b r e e d -
by Foliar Diseases in G r o u n d n u t
i n g l i n e ( G B F D S 2 7 2 ) . T h e y w e r e assessed f o r o i l c o n t e n t ,
Genotypes
o i l y i e l d , and o i l q u a l i t y [ ( o l e i c a c i d / l i n o l e i c a c i d r a t i o ( O / L
r a t i o ) ] , u n d e r diseased a n d p r o t e c t e d c o n d i t i o n s . T h e
B N Motagi 1 , M V C Gowda 1 , and S N Nigam 2
crop was protected by spraying chlorothalonil at 0.2%.
( 1 . Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, University
Each genotype was raised in five r o w s of 5 m in length in
of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad 580 005, Karnataka,
three r e p l i c a t i o n s . O i l c o n t e n t w a s d e t e r m i n e d b y n u c l e a r
India; 2. International Crops Research Institute for the
m a g n e t i c resonance ( N M R ) t e c h n i q u e ( J a m b u n a t h a n e t
Semi-Arid Tropics ( l C R I S A T ) , Patancheru 502 324,
al. 1985). Fatty acid content was estimated f o l l o w i n g M e r c e r
A n d h r a Pradesh, India)
e t a l . ( 1 9 9 0 ) . F r o m t h e f a t t y a c i d data, O / L r a t i o w a s c o m p u t e d . I n each g e n o t y p e , p o d y i e l d ( t ha - 1 ) w a s m u l t i p l i e d
A b o u t 8 0 % of total groundnut production in India is
b y s h e l l i n g o u t - t u r n (%) a n d o i l c o n t e n t (%) t o d e r i v e o i l
crushed f o r the extraction of o i l . Hence, i m p r o v e m e n t in
y i e l d ( t ha - 1 ).
A s i g n i f i c a n t loss i n o i l y i e l d b u t o n l y m a r g i n a l c h a n g e
o i l y i e l d a n d q u a l i t y i s o f interest t o p l a n t breeders a n d
millers.
However,
the
f o l i a r diseases,
(Phaeoisariopsis personata)
and
rust
late
(Puccinia
l e a f spot
i n O / L r a t i o w a s o b s e r v e d d u e t o f o l i a r diseases ( T a b l e 1),
arachidis),
w h i c h i s i n c o n f o r m i t y w i t h a n earlier r e p o r t ( D w i v e d i e t a l .
w h i c h o c c u r t o g e t h e r w o r l d w i d e can cause c o n s i d e r a b l e
1993). H o w e v e r , g e n o t y p e s u n d e r diseased c o n d i t i o n d i f -
loss i n y i e l d a n d q u a l i t y . T h i s study envisages t o evaluate
fered significantly for o i l y i e l d , w i t h susceptible cultivars
t h e g r o u n d n u t g e n o t y p e s w i t h v a r y i n g levels o f resis-
recording very l o w values.
T h e f o l i a r diseases resistant m u t a n t and cross d e r i v a t i v e s
t a n c e t o f o l i a r diseases f o r o i l r e c o v e r y and q u a l i t y u n d e r
matured early and gave h i g h oil y i e l d as compared to
rust a n d late l e a f spot e p i d e m i c s .
T a b l e 1. P e r f o r m a n c e of g r o u n d n u t genotypes for resistance to foliar diseases, a n d oil yield a n d quality at the U n i v e r s i t y
o f A g r i c u l t u r a l Sciences, D h a r w a d , I n d i a , 1998 r a i n y season 1 .
FDS2
Days to
Oil yield
Shelling out-turn
Oil content
(t ha-1)
(%)
(%)
O/L ratio
(%)
P
UP
P
UP
P
UP
(17)
69.6b
69.1 bc
46.6b
44.9b
0.99f
0.96e
1.49a
(15)
79.0a
78.7a
48.5a
48.0a
1.75a
1.78a
1.22b
(25)
76.5a
71.8b
45.0cd
43.1b
1.30c
1.34c
1.11bc
0.89bd (20)
68.1b
64.7c
42.7e
40.6c
1.50b
1.36c
1.42ab
0.92bc (35)
68.7b
69.8bc
44.5cd
40.9c
0.88g
0.90e
8
1.23bc
0.70cd (43)
69.8b
67.6bc
44.0cd
43.7b
0.96e
0.96e
9
1.30bc
0.62cd (52)
70.3b
66.3bc
40.4f
39.8cd
1.15d
1.10d
8
1.09bc
0.64cd(41)
70.4b
66.7bc
42.7e
38.3cd
1.07e
0.97e
Genotype
maturity
LLS
Rust
P
UP
Mutant
100-105
5
7
1.18b
D39d
105-110
4
3
1.40ab
1.75a
B37c
110-115
4
3
1.62ab
Dh 8
105-110
7
R 8808
105-110
8
8
7
JL 24
100-105
8
TMV 2
100-105
9
T A G 24
95-100
9
1CGV 86590 110-115
8
3
1.15bc
0.71 cd (38)
59.8c
57.0d
45.2c
39.9cd
0.89g
0.92e
GBFDS 272
4
-
2
-
1.43ab
1.07bc(25)
0.94** (30)
62.2c
59.4d
46.5b
43.5b
1.50b
1.56b
69.5
67.0*
44.6
42.3**
1.20
L181
-
-
0.22
2.8
3.6
1.0
2.0
0.04
0.08
-
9.5
2.3
3.1
1.0
2.4
2.0
4.0
120-125
Mean
CD (5%)
CV (%)
1. P = P r o t e c t e d ;
1.35
0.21
13.0
UP = U n p r o t e c t e d . F i g u r e s in p a r e n t h e s e s i n d i c a t e r e d u c t i o n ( % ) .
* , * * denote significance o f difference between U P and P a t 5 % and
1% level of probability, respectively.
Figures w i t h same letters in a c o l u m n do not d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y at 5% level of p r o b a b i l i t y .
2.
F D S - F i e l d disease s c o r e ( 1 - 9 s c a l e ) , w h e r e 1 - 0 % , 2 = 1 - 5 % , 3 = 6 - 1 0 % , 4 = 1 1 - 2 0 % , 5 = 2 1 - 3 0 % , 6 = 3 1 - 4 0 % , 7 = 4 1 - 6 0 % ,
3.
Not
8 = 6 1 — 8 0 % , and 9 = 8 1 - 1 0 0 % damage to f o l i a g e ; L L S = Late l e a f spot.
significant.
I A N 20, 2000
87
r e s i s t a n t b r e e d i n g l i n e G B F D S 2 7 2 . T h e cross d e r i v a t i v e ,
n o t p o s s i b l e f o r f o r a g e c u l t i v a t i o n because o f p r e f e r e n t i a l
D 3 9 d , r e c o r d e d h i g h e s t o i l y i e l d ( 1 . 7 5 t h a 1 ) w i t h least
h u m a n f o o d and other economic compulsions. U n d e r
r e d u c t i o n ( 1 5 % ) d u e t o f o l i a r diseases. Its o i l w a s c h a r a c -
such circumstances, one of the possible ways to bridge
t e r i z e d b y h i g h O / L r a t i o ( 1 . 7 8 ) , r e v e a l i n g better n u t r i t i o n a l
the w i d e gap between demand and supply is to ameliorate
and k e e p i n g q u a l i t y . Its h i g h o i l y i e l d under diseased
the forage resources t h r o u g h m a n a g e m e n t o f d r y l a n d s
c o n d i t i o n was especially due t o h i g h o i l content ( 4 8 % )
and/or
and shelling out-turn (79%). This genotype could be
Hence, the study was undertaken to f i n d out the nutritive
w i d e l y t e s t e d f o r its s u i t a b i l i t y i n c o m m e r c i a l c u l t i v a t i o n
v a l u e o f w i l d Arachis species, w h i c h m a y b e i n t r o d u c e d
wastelands
by
introducing
new
fodder
crops.
a n d / o r p r o f i t a b l y u t i l i z e d i n resistance b r e e d i n g t o i m p r o v e
as a s o u r c e of p e r e n n i a l f o d d e r in d r y l a n d / w a s t e l a n d ar-
Spanish b u n c h g r o u n d n u t s .
eas.
T h e w i l d Arachis species h a v e b e e n m a i n t a i n e d a t t h e
National
References
Dwivedi,
S.L.,
Nigam,
S.N.,
Subrahmanyam,
P.,
J a m b u n a t h a n , R., N a g a b h u s h a n a m , V . S . , R e d d y , P . M . ,
R a g h u n a t h , K., and M c D o n a l d , D . 1 9 9 3 . E f f e c t o f f o l i a r
disease c o n t r o l b y c h l o r o t h a l o n i l o n p o d y i e l d a n d q u a l i t y
characteristics
Research
Centre
for
Groundnut
(NRCG),
J u n a g a d h , G u j a r a t , I n d i a in a s m a l l pasture since last
of
confectionery
groundnuts
(Arachis
hypogaea L.). J o u r n a l o f t h e S c i e n c e o f F o o d a n d A g r i c u l ture 6 3 : 2 6 5 - 2 7 1 .
J a m b u n a t h a n , R., R a j u , S . M . , a n d B a r d e , S . P . 1 9 8 5 .
five
years.
A.
hagenbeckii,
Five
accessions
A.
of w i l d
prostrata,
A.
Arachis
species,
marginata,
and
A. glabrata, a l o n g w i t h t h r e e c o n t r o l s w e r e t e s t e d in a
completely randomized design w i t h three replications.
T h e c o n t r o l s i n c l u d e d t w o c u l t i v a t e d species o f g r o u n d n u t
(Spanish
and
Virginia
types)
and
wheat.
Cultivated
g r o u n d n u t w a s s o w n i n t h e e n d o f J u n e 1 9 9 7 w i t h 1.25 g
n i t r o g e n and 2.5 g P 2 O 5 m - 2 and w a s harvested in the second
fortnight of October. Wheat was sown on 19 N o v e m b e r
Analysis o f oil content o f groundnuts b y nuclear magnetic
1997 w i t h 12 g n i t r o g e n a n d 5 g P 2 O 5 m - 2 a n d w a s h a r v e s t e d
resonance spectrometry. Journal o f the Science o f F o o d
on 7 M a r c h 1998. F i v e plant samples ( w h o l e plants) from
and A g r i c u l t u r e 3 6 : 1 6 2 - 1 6 6 .
M e r c e r , L . C . , W y n n e , J . C . , and Y o u n g , C . T . 1990. I n h e r itance of fatty acid content in peanut o i l . Peanut Science
17:17-21.
e a c h species w e r e r a n d o m l y c u t f r o m 5 c m a b o v e t h e
g r o u n d level to study different n u t r i t i v e characters as a
fodder, viz., dry matter ( D M ) , crude protein (CP), crude
fiber ( C F ) , ash, silica, phosphorus (P), potassium, and
ether. C o l l e c t e d p l a n t s a m p l e s w e r e a i r d r i e d a n d t h e n k e p t
in an o v e n at 6 5 ± 5 ° C t i l l the samples attained a constant
weight. Total dry matter was estimated by deducting dry
Utilization
w e i g h t f r o m fresh w e i g h t and expressed in percent. T o t a l
p h o s p h o r u s in the samples was d e t e r m i n e d by V a n a d a t e molybdate y e l l o w method (Jackson 1973). Ether content
W i l d Arachis Species: A Possible Source
of Legume Fodder in I n d i a
was determined by Soxhlet m e t h o d . The crude fiber, ash,
and silica were estimated by treating the fat and m i x t u r e free sample w i t h sulfuric acid ( 1 . 2 5 % ) a n d then s o d i u m
h y d r o x i d e ( 1 . 2 5 % ) . Potassium content in plant sample was
P K Ghosh 1 and S K Bera (National Research Centre for
d e t e r m i n e d f o l l o w i n g neutral 1N a m m o n i u m acetate m e t h o d .
Groundnut, Ivnagar Road, PB N o . 5, Junagadh 362 0 0 1 ,
Nitrogen
Gujarat, India; 1. Present address: Indian Institute of Soil
m i c r o K j e l d a h l m e t h o d and then m u l t i p l i e d w i t h 6.42 to
Sciences, Nabibagh, Bhopal 462 038, M a d h y a Pradesh,
o b t a i n p r o t e i n content in the samples.
India)
content
(%)
in
sample
was
analyzed
by
I n g e n e r a l , w i l d species h a d h i g h e r d r y m a t t e r c o n t e n t
t h a n t h e c u l t i v a t e d species b u t t h e d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e n o t
I n I n d i a , a n annual d e f i c i t o f a b o u t 3 0 % between a v a i l a b i l i t y
s i g n i f i c a n t ( T a b l e 1). A m o n g the w i l d species, A. marginata
a n d r e q u i r e m e n t o f f o r a g e a n d f o d d e r has been v i s u a l i z e d .
h a d the highest d r y matter content w h i c h was s i g n i f i -
I n r e a l i t y , t h i s d e f i c i t m a y b e a r o u n d 4 0 % because f o r a g e
c a n t l y superior o v e r c u l t i v a t e d species. W i l d species, i n
t h o u g h potentially available in the c o u n t r y m a y not be
general, had higher crude protein, higher crude fiber, and
actually available to animals. This is possibly one of the
silica
reasons o f l o w p r o d u c t i v i t y o f livestock i n I n d i a . T h e
wheat straw had m a x i m u m crude fiber and silica contents.
d i v e r s i o n o f o t h e r f o o d s o r c o m m e r c i a l c r o p p e d area i s
A l l the w i l d species c o n t a i n e d l o w ash a n d ether a s c o m p a r e d
88
I A N 20, 2000
contents
than
cultivated
groundnut.
However,
T a b l e 1 . N u t r i t i v e q u a l i t y ( % ) o f c u l t i v a t e d a n d w i l d Arachis a s f o d d e r , J u n a g a d h , G u j a r a t , I n d i a , 1 9 9 7 / 9 8 .
Genotype
Dry
Crude
matter
fiber
Ash
Silica
Ether
Crude
Phosphorus
Potassium
extract
protein
W i l d species
A.
glabrata
32.37
25.83
9.42
0.91
0.29
0.61
2.38
14.51
A.
prostrata
25.38
10.16
0.88
2.00
13.49
glabrata
29.75
9.16
0.83
1.07
0.22
A.
31.31
31.25
0.18
0.75
2.08
11.85
(lG 8966; Pl 468363)
A.
hagenbackii
32.27
27.75
10.28
1.58
0.22
0.89
2.48
13.81
A.
marginata
33.25
26.58
10.02
1.06
0.29
0.73
1.89
15.26
32.09
27.06
9.80
1.10
0.24
0.77
2.17
13.78
V i r g i n i a type (cv K a d i r i 3)
30.25
21.00
14.30
0.85
1.60
2.62
10.30
Spanish type (cv JL 24)
28.02
22.32
13.23
1.02
0.15
1.14
2.52
9.45
Wheat straw (cv L o k 1)
32.00
36.70
17.82
1.92
0.06
0.48
2.91
2.32
±0.0428
±2.105
±0.771
±0.111
±0.025
±0.144
±0.110
±1.244
Mean
Control
SE
to the cultivated g r o u n d n u t and wheat straw but had
0.13
Socioeconomics
h i g h e r P a n d c r u d e p r o t e i n c o n t e n t t h a n the three c o n t r o l s .
Arachis
marginata
recorded
significantly
higher
P
and
c r u d e p r o t e i n a s c o m p a r e d t o o t h e r w i l d species. T h e P
and crude protein content in wheat straw was very l o w .
O n - f a r m Participatory Evaluation o f
Usually, n u t r i t i o n a l l y desirable fodder should have h i g h
G r o u n d n u t Genotypes under Rainfed
d r y m a t t e r , p r o t e i n , a n d P c o n t e n t s w i t h less c r u d e f i b e r ,
Conditions in M a h a w i t e Governorate,
ash,
a n d s i l i c a c o n t e n t . Arachis prostrata m a i n t a i n e d nu-
tritionally desirable quality for fodder as is evident f r o m
Yemen
T a b l e 1 . M o r e o v e r , s i n c e these w i l d species are k n o w n t o
Al-Nahdi1,
C
S
Ward1,
Mehdi2,
h a v e r e s i s t a n c e t o f o l i a r diseases, b e t t e r q u a l i t y o f f o d d e r
Saleha
f r o m w i l d species t h a n t h a t o f c u l t i v a t e d g r o u n d n u t i s
Al-Bushariy 2 (1. W o r l d Bank Office, Sana'a. PO Box
and
expected. Further study of detailed qualitative characters
18152, Republic of Yemen; 2. Ministry of Agriculture and
of t h e t w o w i l d species A.
Irrigation, Republic of Yemen)
marginata a n d A. prostrata is
n e e d e d so that these species can be p u t in l o n g - t e r m pasture
d e v e l o p m e n t i n d r y l a n d o r w a s t e l a n d areas t o increase
the availability of fodder.
A b o u t 7 7 % o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n i n Y e m e n resides i n t h e r u r a l
areas a n d is e n g a g e d in a g r i c u l t u r e . In the last t w o decades,
the c o n t r i b u t i o n o f agriculture t o the national gross d o m e s t i c
A c k n o w l e d g m e n t . A u t h o r s are t h a n k f u l t o t h e D i r e c t o r ,
N R C G for g i v i n g constant encouragement i n c o n d u c t i n g
the study and also to Dr K S M u r t h y , A n i m a l Scientist,
Gujarat Agricultural University, Junagadh, for helping in
the analysis of ether and silica.
p r o d u c t ( G D P ) has d r o p p e d f r o m 7 5 % t o 1 8 % i n 1999. T h i s
d e c l i n e i n the G D P c o n t r i b u t i o n has b e e n c a u s e d b y a
n u m b e r of factors such as m i g r a t i o n of labor to other
countries o r t o u r b a n areas w i t h i n the c o u n t r y , a b a n d o n m e n t
o f the a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d a n d terraces, p o o r a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i v i t y , ecological factors (erratic and l o w r a i n f a l l ,
drought, floods, extensive soil and water erosion, r e m o v a l
Reference
o f vegetative covers), and p o o r cultural practices ( c u l t i v a t i o n
o f m o n o c r o p , e s p e c i a l l y c e r e a l s , e.g., s o r g h u m a n d m i l l e t ,
without crop rotation).
J a c k s o n , M . L . 1973. S o i l c h e m i c a l a n a l y s i s . N e w D e l h i ,
India: Prentice Hall of India Pvt. L t d . 498 pp.
W h e n m o r e than three m i l l i o n w o r k e r s returned h o m e
after the G u l f crisis in 1990, they had to fall back on a g r i c u l t u r e
I A N 20, 2000
89
management operations under the guidance and super-
i n these d e t e r i o r a t e d l a n d s . I n o r d e r t o s u r v i v e , t h e y c o n -
v i s i o n o f p r o j e c t staff.
t i n u e d to explore lands, even m a r g i n a l lands, w i t h o u t any
inputs, viz., fertilizers, organic manure, improved crop
2. The project staff w i l l m o n i t o r the trials and p r o v i d e
varieties, and proper application o f pesticides and f u n g i -
diseases a n d pest c o n t r o l m a t e r i a l s , i f n e e d e d .
cides to c o n t r o l pests a n d diseases. These practices r e s u l t e d
in l o w y i e l d and poor quality of produce and further de-
3 . T h e p r o j e c t w i l l b u y b a c k the p r o d u c e o f g r o u n d n u t f r o m
p a r t i c i p a t i n g f a r m e r s t o sell i t t o o t h e r f a r m e r s n e x t y e a r .
t e r i o r a t i o n o f the l a n d resources. T h i s d i s c o u r a g i n g situation
forces the farmers to leave their traditional homes and
4. In the event of crop failure, the project w i l l adequately
compensate the p a r t i c i p a t i n g farmers.
m i g r a t e t o a l r e a d y o v e r c r o w d e d u r b a n areas. T h e f a r m e r s
are k e e n t o c u l t i v a t e c a s h c r o p s d u e t o l o w r e t u r n f r o m
cereals. I n t h e past, g r o u n d n u t c u l t i v a t i o n i n s m a l l areas
In 1998, four farmers in A l - K o r a n , three farmers in
was concentrated in T i h a m region. But it was abandoned
A l - H o j o u l , and t w o farmers in A l - H a d a n participated in
later o n d u e t o t e r m i t e p r o b l e m . I n r e c e n t y e a r s , f a r m e r s i n
on-farm trials. In 1999, nine farmers in A l - K o r a n , eight
other r e g i o n s o f the c o u n t r y h a v e s h o w n interest i n g r o w i n g
farmers each i n A l - M a n a k a n d A l - H o j o u l , a n d seven f a r m e r s
i n A l - H a d a n p a r t i c i p a t e d i n these trials. I n a l l these v i l l a g e s ,
groundnut.
T h e m a i n o b j e c t i v e o f this o n - f a r m e v a l u a t i o n o f g r o u n d -
f a r m e r s g r o w o n e c r o p p e r y e a r , m o s t l y cereals ( s o r g h u m ,
nut genotypes was to identify, in partnership w i t h farmers,
m i l l e t , a n d m a i z e ) , u n d e r r a i n f e d c o n d i t i o n s . T h e s o i l s are
the m o s t adapted g e n o t y p e w i t h stable p e r f o r m a n c e a n d
c l a y s i l t o r s i l t a n d t h e c u l t i v a t i o n i s e i t h e r o n terraces o r i n
e x p o s e f a r m e r s t o g r o u n d n u t c r o p a n d its c u l t i v a t i o n t o
wadis.
e n a b l e t h e m t o m a k e t h e i r c h o i c e o f a l t e r n a t e cash c r o p s .
Eleven i m p r o v e d varieties o f g r o u n d n u t were obtained
Farmers in four pilot villages (Al - H o j o u l , A l - M a n a k ,
f r o m I C R I S A T , Patancheru, India. These varieties had
A l - H a d a n , and A l - K o r a n ) , where main occupation is agri-
d i f f e r i n g g r o w t h habit, c r o p d u r a t i o n , and reaction t o diseases
culture, were approached to participate in the o n - f a r m
a n d i n s e c t pests. T h e y w e r e e v a l u a t e d w i t h l o c a l v a r i e t y
evaluation of groundnut genotypes in their fields. M a n y
B a l a d i ( T a b l e 1). I n b o t h y e a r s , t h e f i e l d s w e r e p r e p a r e d i n
i n f o r m a l d i s c u s s i o n s w e r e h e l d w i t h f a r m e r s t o secure
traditional w a y using buffaloes. T h e trials were hand
their p a r t i c i p a t i o n under the f o l l o w i n g conditions:
s o w n i n r o w s w i t h i n t e r r o w s p a c i n g o f 8 0 c m ; seed t o seed
1.
organic manure, chemical fertilizers, or plant protection
distance w i t h i n a r o w w a s 1 0 c m . T h e y d i d n o t r e c e i v e a n y
The p r o j e c t w i l l s u p p l y g r o u n d n u t seed t o f a r m e r s .
They will
carry out s o w i n g and other day-to-day
measures. W e e d i n g was done m a n u a l l y w h e n needed.
T a b l e 1 . P a r t i c i p a t o r y o n - f a r m e v a l u a t i o n o f n e w g r o u n d n u t genotypes i n f o u r pilot villages o f M a h a w i t e G o v e r n o r a t e ,
Y e m e n , 1998 and 1999.
A v e r a g e p o d y i e l d ( t ha-1)
Yemen
C r o p duration (days)
1998
1999
ICRISAT1
120-125
4.0
3.0
3.0
120-125
2.5
1.5
3.0
110 - 1 1 5
2.0
1.0
1.5
130-140
120 - 1 2 5
1.5
1.0
2.5
Genotype
Yemen
l C G V 86325
130-140
ICGS 76
130-140
l C G V 86590
130 - 1 4 0
ICGS44
ICRISAT1
ICGS 1
120-125
110 - 1 1 5
1.0
0.7
2.0
I C G S 11
130-140
120-125
1.0
0.5
2.0
I C G V 88409
130 - 1 4 0
125-135
0.8
0.5
1.5
I C G V 94361
120-130
90-100
0.9
0.7
1.5
ICGV91123
110-120
90 - 1 0 0
0.8
0.5
1.6
I C G V 86564
140 - 1 5 0
130
0.6
0.5
3.0
I C G V 88409
140-150
130
0.6
0.4
3.5
Baladi (control)
140-150
0.9
0.7
1.
90
As reported in I C R I S A T publications.
I A N 20, 2000
-
I n 1998, s o w i n g was completed during 14-20 M a y i n A l -
G r o u n d n u t in Central Asia
K o r a n a n d A l - H o j o u l a n d o n 6 June i n A l - H a d a n . T h e p l o t
2
size v a r i e d from 2 liban (l l i b a n = 65 m ) to 8 l i b a n . In 1999,
s o w i n g started f r o m 25 M a y in all the f o u r villages and
w a s c o m p l e t e d b y 3 0 J u n e . T h e p l o t size v a r i e d f r o m 0.25
G r o u n d n u t in T u r k m e n i s t a n
l i b a n t o 2 0 l i b a n . T h e p r o d u c e o f 1998 w a s used a s seed
f o r 1999.
A b o u t 6 0 0 - 8 0 0 m m rainfall i s received d u r i n g the rainy
season ( M a y - S e p t e m b e r ) . I n b o t h y e a r s , t h e c r o p s e x p e rienced drought. In 1998, trials were under early drought
A
N
Durdiyev (Ministry of Agriculture and
Water
Resources, Management of Turkmenistan, 63 Azadi Str.,
744000 Ashgabat, Turkmenistan)
stress f o r t w o m o n t h s . R a i n f a l l w a s s c a n t y i n J u n e a n d i n
m o s t p a r t o f J u l y . H e a v y r a i n s started f r o m t h e last w e e k
A f t e r recent surveys conducted in T u r k m e n i s t a n , it was
o f J u l y a n d c a u s e d severe d a m a g e . D u r i n g e a r l y d r o u g h t
f o u n d that g r o u n d n u t can b e g r o w n t h r o u g h o u t the c o u n t r y
stress, m o s t o f the f a r m e r s lost t h e i r o t h e r c r o p s b u t
o n the salt-free i r r i g a t e d areas. T h e v a r i e t i e s tested y i e l d e d
g r o u n d n u t was able to w i t h s t a n d this d r o u g h t spell.
I n 1 9 9 9 , t h e c r o p s f a c e d b o t h e a r l y a n d late season
1 . 8 - 3 . 8 t ha - 1 . G r o u n d n u t c r o p c o u l d e a s i l y b e g r o w n a n d
w a s resistant t o w e e d s a n d diseases.
H o w e v e r , areas
d r o u g h t s ( i n J u n e , A u g u s t , S e p t e m b e r ) . D u e t o these
intended for this crop w o u l d have to be weed-free. T h e
d r o u g h t s , m o s t o f t h e f a r m e r s lost t h e i r s o r g h u m a n d
results o f a s t u d y o f 1 2 - 1 5 v a r i e t i e s s h o w e d t h a t y i e l d s o f
o t h e r c r o p s a n d h a d t o u n d e r t a k e r e - s o w i n g . W h e n these
V i r g i n i a , f l o r u n n e r , a n d starr v a r i e t i e s ( a l l f r o m U S A ) a n d
farmers saw g r o u n d n u t still g r o w i n g in their n e i g h b o r i n g
o n e accession f r o m I n d i a , K 1 3 8 8 , w e r e t h e h i g h e s t .
fields of participating farmers, they approached us for
g r o u n d n u t seed. W e c o u l d n o t m e e t t h e i r requests a s w e
h a d o n l y l i m i t e d q u a n t i t y o f seed.
Some
experiments on
development of production
t e c h n o l o g y have been p e r f o r m e d in T u r k m e n i s t a n on the
v a r i e t y T a s h k e n t - 1 . Based o n t h e i r results, s o m e r e c o m m e n -
O t h e r than grasshoppers a t A l - H o j o u l and ' l e a f y e l l o w i n g '
dations were developed regarding agrotechnique of this
a t A l - K o r a n d u r i n g b o t h y e a r s , n o o t h e r diseases a n d
crop, and a technological map of activities was prepared.
pests w e r e f o u n d o n the c r o p . T h e ' l e a f y e l l o w i n g ' d i d n o t
G r o u n d n u t i s used i n T u r k m e n i s t a n m a i n l y f o r f o o d
seem t o a f f e c t p o d y i e l d . T h e t r i a l s w e r e h a r v e s t e d d u r i n g
p u r p o s e s (as f r i e d s n a c k ) , a n d c a n b e used i n p a t i s s e r i e
S e p t e m b e r a n d O c t o b e r . P o d y i e l d data f r o m each f i e l d
p r o d u c t i o n b y s o m e f a c t o r i e s that p r o d u c e s w e e t s , cakes
w e r e p o o l e d t o w o r k o u t a v e r a g e y i e l d f o r each y e a r . T h e
etc. T h e m a j o r l i m i t i n g f a c t o r s f o r p r o d u c t i o n o f t h i s c r o p
r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d are s u m m a r i z e d i n T a b l e 1 .
Farmers were impressed w i t h groundnut crop especially
are o f s o c i o e c o n o m i c n a t u r e , i.e., u t i l i z a t i o n o f m a i n areas
under the basic crops such as wheat, c o t t o n , a l f a l f a , a n d
w h e n they saw it w i t h s t a n d i n g early d r o u g h t w h e n other
vegetables. G r o u n d n u t is not g r o w n
crops had failed. I C G V 86325 d i d w e l l even in drought
( n e w l y established private farms), but m a i n l y in small
stressed c o n d i t i o n s . Its p o d s w e r e free f r o m d a m a g e b y
holdings and small farms.
i n dekhkan f a r m s
s o i l b o r n e insects o r f u n g i . T h e f a r m e r s w e r e n o t w i l l i n g t o
N o research a c t i v i t i e s r e l a t i n g t o seed p r o d u c t i o n h a v e
s e l l t h e seed t o u s even t h o u g h w e o f f e r e d d o u b l e the p r i c e .
b e e n d o n e d u r i n g t h e last 1 0 years i n T u r k m e n i s t a n . I n
G r o u n d n u t cultivation in Y e m e n is very profitable as it
f a c t , t h e g e r m p l a s m a v a i l a b l e i n the past h a v e b e e n l o s t ,
fetches 1 2 0 - 1 8 0 Y e m e n i R i y a l ( Y R ) k g - 1 o f p o d s ( l U S $ =
a n d o n l y i n p r i v a t e f a r m s this c r o p i s g r o w n f r o m the l o c a l l y
160 Y R ) c o m p a r e d t o 3 0 - 5 0 Y R k g
-1
f o r s o r g h u m and millets.
p r o d u c e d seed m a t e r i a l , w h i c h has n o s p e c i f i c n a m e . A
s m a l l c o l l e c t i o n o f a b o u t 4 v a r i e t i e s exists a t t h e R e s e a r c h
A c k n o w l e d g m e n t s . Financial support f r o m the W o r l d B a n k ,
Institute
Y e m e n and a n o n - g o v e r n m e n t a l organization ( N G O ) , P e o p l e
Turkmenistan.
of
Agriculture
and
Water
Management
in
f o r the P e o p l e , a n d s u p p l y o f seed materials f r o m I C R I S A T ,
C e r t a i n characters o f g r o u n d n u t c r o p s u c h a s c o m p a r a -
I n d i a are g r a t e f u l l y a c k n o w l e d g e d . T h a n k s are also d u e t o
tively higher yield potential, easy-growing techniques, and
M r G i a n n i B r i z z i (Representative) and M s L i n d a V a n G e l d e r
h i g h l y desirable taste and n u t r i t i v e q u a l i t i e s are m a k i n g t h i s
( D e p u t y Representative), W o r l d Bank, Y e m e n and Dr S N
c r o p v e r y a t t r a c t i v e f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n a n d f o r the
N i g a m , I C R I S A T for their support and encouragement.
processing industry in Turkmenistan.
I A N 20, 2000
91
Publications
C o p i e s o f titles a r e a v a i l a b l e f r o m : P u b l i c A w a r e n e s s
U n i t , I n f o r m a t i o n Resource M a n a g e m e n t Program
( I R M P ) , I n t e r n a t i o n a l C r o p s Research I n s t i t u t e f o r t h e
S e m i - A r i d T r o p i c s ( I C R I S A T ) , Patancheru 502 324,
A n d h r a Pradesh, I n d i a . ( E m a i l : i m a i l i s t @ c g i a r . o r g ) .
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dollars;
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L D C price.
A i r b o o k p o s t postage a n d h a n d l i n g charges are i n c l u d e d
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countries, I r a n , I r a q , Japan, K u w a i t , L i b y a , M e x i c o , N e w
Z e a l a n d , Saudi A r a b i a , S o u t h A f r i c a , a n d U S A .
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S i a m a s o n t a , B . M . , K a n e n g a , K . , M u s a n y a , J . C . , and
H a m a z a k a z a , P . M . 2 0 0 0 . R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s for i m p r o v e d
g r o u n d n u t p r o d u c t i o n i n Z a m b i a . Lusaka, Z a m b i a : M i n i s t r y
o f A g r i c u l t u r e , F o o d a n d Fisheries, G o v e r n m e n t o f T h e
Republic o f Zambia. (Sponsored b y S A D C / I C R I S A T
G r o u n d n u t Project a n d B M Z / G T Z . ) 2 4 p p .
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Publications f r o m I C R I S A T
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92 I A N 20, 2000
V i r m a n i , S . M . , and S h u r p a l i , N . J . 1999. C l i m a t e p r e d i c t i o n f o r sustainable p r o d u c t i o n o n r a i n f e d g r o u n d n u t s i n
S A T : crop establishment risks in groundnut p r o d u c t i o n
i n the A n a n t a p u r r e g i o n . T e c h n i c a l M a n u a l n o . 4 . 5 0
pages. I S B N 9 2 - 9 0 6 6 - 4 0 9 - 6 . O r d e r c o d e T M E 0 0 4 . L D C
$15.00. H D C $40.00. India R s 530.00.
N e a r l y 8 0 % o f the area s o w n t o g r o u n d n u t s i n I n d i a i s
r a i n f e d a n d relies e n t i r e l y o n s u m m e r m o n s o o n r a i n f a l l .
T h e r a i n f a l l i n m o s t o f the g r o u n d n u t - g r o w i n g r e g i o n s i s
l o w and erratic. T h e r e i s a h i g h v a r i a b i l i t y i n the onset o f
monsoons, annual rainfall, and distribution of rainfall
o v e r the g r o w i n g season. M o r e o v e r , s u c h h i g h v a r i a b i l i t y i n p r e c i p i t a t i o n i s g e n e r a l l y associated w i t h a h i g h
p r o b a b i l i t y o f a n e a r l y season d r o u g h t . T h u s , r a i n f e d
a g r i c u l t u r e i n I n d i a i s a r i s k y p r o p o s i t i o n . O n e o f the d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o b l e m s c o n f r o n t i n g the f a r m e r s at the onset o f c r o p p i n g season i s c h o i c e o f a n o p t i m u m s o w i n g
window.
W i t h the a b o v e i n v i e w , a research p r o j e c t w a s u n d e r t a k e n a t I C R I S A T t o e x a m i n e the trends i n g r o u n d n u t p r o d u c t i o n in I n d i a o v e r the past f e w decades in the g l o b a l
c o n t e x t , t o c h a r a c t e r i z e the g r o u n d n u t p r o d u c t i o n e n v i ronment of the A n a n t a p u r r e g i o n , and to p r o v i d e a
f i r s t a p p r o x i m a t i o n "decision support system'' to the
farmers o f the A n a n t a p u r r e g i o n i n the state o f A n d h r a
Pradesh a n d thus a i d t h e m i n d e c i d i n g a n o p t i m u m " t i m e
w i n d o w " for s o w i n g the g r o u n d n u t crop.
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w r i t i n g to:
International A r c h i v e s o f A l l e r g y and I m m u n o l o g y 1 1 8 : 3 1 3 314.
B u r k s , W . , B a n n o n , G . A . , S i c h e r e r , S., and S a m p s o n ,
H . A . 1999. P e a n u t - i n d u c e d a n a p h y l a c t i c reactions.
International Archives o f A l l e r g y and I m m u n o l o g y
119:165-172.
Senior Manager
L e a r n i n g Systems U n i t , I R M P
lCRISAT
Patancheru 5 0 2 3 2 4 , A n d h r a Pradesh, I n d i a
E-mail: [email protected]
G r o u n d n u t publications
A n a n d a n , S., Sastry, V . R . B . , K a t i y a r , R . C . , and A g r a w a l ,
D . K . 1999. Processed neem k e r n e l m e a l as a substitute for
peanut m e a l p r o t e i n i n g r o w i n g goat diets. S m a l l R u m i n a n t
Research 3 2 : 1 2 5 - 1 2 8 .
B a h u g u n a , S . 1999. Prospects o f g r o u n d n u t and soybean
c u l t i v a t i o n i n U . P . H i l l s ( U t t a r Pradesh, I n d i a ) .
Indian Journal of Soil Conservation 27:84-86.
Bandyopadhyay, A., Nautiyal, P.C., Radhakrishnan, T.,
and G o r , H . K . 1999. R o l e o f testa, c o t y l e d o n s a n d e m b r y o n i c a x i s i n seed d o r m a n c y o f g r o u n d n u t ( A r a c h i s
hypogaea 1..). J o u r n a l o f A g r o n o m y a n d C r o p Science
182:37-41.
B e d i , S.P.S. 1999. I o d i n e e s t i m a t i o n a n d its c o n t e n t in
feeds a n d fodders. I n d i a n J o u r n a l o f A n i m a l N u t r i t i o n
16:135-139.
Bhangoo, B.S., K a u l , J . N . , and K l e r , D . S . 1999. T i l l a g e inf l u e n c e o n c r o p establishment, m i c r o c l i m a t e a n d
p r o d u c t i v i t y o f summer planted bunch groundnut. E n v i r o n m e n t and E c o l o g y 1 7 : 2 8 0 - 2 8 2 .
B h a t t , R.S., and S a w a l , R . K . 1999. Effect o f replacement o f
g r o u n d n u t cake w i t h s u n f l o w e r cake o n the b i o l o g i c a l
p e r f o r m a n c e o f b r o i l e r rabbits. E g y p t i a n Journal o f R a b b i t
Science 9 : 4 3 - 5 2 .
B o r k e r t , C M . , and C o x , F . R . 1999. Effects o f a c i d i t y a t
h i g h s o i l z i n c , c o p p e r , a n d manganese o n peanut, r i c e ,
a n d s o y b e a n . C o m m u n i c a t i o n s i n S o i l Science a n d Plant
Analysis 30:1371-1384.
B r a r , A . S . , D h i n g r a , K . K . , and K a u l , J . N . 1999. Phenol o g i c a l b e h a v i o u r a n d heat u n i t r e q u i r e m e n t o f g r o u n d n u t
C a i r e s , E . F . , and R o s o l e m , C . A . 1999. L i m e , c o b a l t a n d
m o l y b d e n u m effects o n c h l o r o p h y l l c o n t e n t s i n
peanut leaves. R e v i s t a B r a s i l e i r a de C i e n c i a do S o l o
23:79-34.
C a s t r o , S., P e r m i g i a n i , M . , V i n o c u r , M . , and F a b r a , A .
1999. N o d u l a t i o n in peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) roots
i n the presence o f n a t i v e a n d i n o c u l a t e d r h i z o b i a strains.
A p p l i e d Soil Ecology 13:39-44.
C h a p m a n , K . D . , Venables, B . , M a r k o v i c , R., B l a i r , R . W . ,
J r . , and Bettinger, C. 1999. N - A c y l e t h a n o l a m i n e s in seeds.
Q u a n t i f i c a t i o n o f m o l e c u l a r species a n d t h e i r d e g r a d a t i o n
u p o n i m b i b i t i o n . Plant P h y s i o l o g y 1 2 0 : 1 1 5 7 - 1 1 6 4 .
C h a u d h u r i , S., Seal, A . , and D a s g u p t a , M . 1999.
Autophosphorylation-dependent activation of a calciumdependent p r o t e i n kinase from groundnut. Plant P h y s i o l o g y
120:859-866.
C h e n , K . , X u , Z . , Z h a n g , Z . , and Y a n g , S.J. 1999.
E p i d e m i o l o g y o f peanut stripe v i r u s ( P S t V ) o n sesame.
A c t a Phytophylacica Sinica 2 6 : 5 5 - 5 9 .
C h i o u , R . Y . Y . , W e n , Y . Y . , F e r n g , S., and L e a r n , S.P. 1999.
M o u l d i n f e c t i o n a n d a f l a t o x i n c o n t a m i n a t i o n o f the pean u t ker nels harvested from s p r i n g a n d f a l l crops as affected b y a r t i f i c i a l i n o c u l a t i o n o f the seeded k e r n e l s w i t h
Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus niger. J o u r n a l of the
Science o f F o o d and A g r i c u l t u r e 7 9 : 1 4 1 7 - 1 4 2 2 .
C r a u f u r d , P . Q . , W h e e l e r , T . R . , Ellis, R . H . , S u m m e r f i e l d ,
R . J . , and W i l l i a m s , J . H . 1999. Effect o f t e m p e r a t u r e a n d
w a t e r d e f i c i t o n water-use e f f i c i e n c y , c a r b o n i s o t o p e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , a n d specific l e a f area i n peanut. C r o p Science
39:136-142.
D a i m o n , H . , H o r i , K . , S h i m i z u , A . , and N a k a g a w a , M .
1999. N i t r a t e - i n d u c e d i n h i b i t i o n o f r o o t n o d u l e f o r m a t i o n
and nitrogenase activity in the peanut (Arachis hypogaea L . ) .
Plant P r o d u c t i o n Science 2 : 8 1 - 8 6 .
Sciences 6 9 : 4 1 9 - 4 2 3 .
D a s , S.R., D a s , L . K . , and P a n i , B . K . 1999. In vitro
e f f i c a c y o f some f u n g i c i d e s against Leptosphaerulina
crassiasca i n c i t i n g pepper spot and leaf scorch of groundnut.
Environment and Ecology 17:140-142.
Burks, A . W . , K i n g , N . , and Bannon, G . A . 1999. M o d i f i c a t i o n
Delfosse, P . , R e d d y , A . S . , L e g r e v e , A . , D e v i , P.S., D e v i ,
o f a m a j o r p e a n u t a l l e r g e n leads t o loss o f I g E b i n d i n g .
K . T . , M a r a i t e , H . , and R e d d y , D . V . R . 1999. I n d i a n peanut
(Arachis hypogaea)
genotypes
under t w o
dates
of s o w -
i n g d u r i n g s u m m e r season. I n d i a n J o u r n a l o f A g r i c u l t u r a l
I A N 20, 2000 93
c l u m p virus ( I P C V ) infection on wheat and barley: s y m p t o m s , y i e l d loss a n d t r a n s m i s s i o n t h r o u g h seed. Plant Pathology 48:273-282.
H a s s a n e i n , A . M . 1999. A l t e r a t i o n s i n p r o t e i n a n d
esterase patterns o f p e a n u t i n response t o s a l i n i t y stress.
B i o l o g i a Plantarum 4 2 : 2 4 1 - 2 4 8 .
Dosani, A . A . K . , T a l a s h i l k a r , S.C., and M e h t a , V . B . 1999.
E f f e c t o f p o u l t r y m a n u r e a p p l i e d i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h fert i l i z e r s o n the y i e l d , q u a l i t y a n d n u t r i e n t u p t a k e o f
g r o u n d n u t . J o u r n a l o f the I n d i a n S o c i e t y o f S o i l
Science 4 7 : 1 6 6 - 1 6 9 .
H a d j i o a n n o u - R a l l i , A . , K o l i o u , A . , and A k k e l i d o u , D .
1999. Surveillance and c o n t r o l o f aflatoxins B 1 , B 2 , G 1 , G 2 ,
a n d M l i n f o o d stuffs i n the R e p u b l i c o f C y p r u s : 1 9 9 2 1996. Journal o f A O A C I n t e r n a t i o n a l 8 2 : 8 8 3 - 8 9 2 .
Doucet, D . , Delfosse, P., L e g r e v e , A . , D e v i , P.S., R e d d y ,
A . S . , and M a r a i t e , H . 1999. T h e I n d i a n peanut c l u m p v i r u s
is h i g h l y infectious on graminaceous plants. Zeitschrift
fur P f l a n z e n k r a n k h e i t e n u n d Pflanzenschutz 1 0 6 : 4 1 8 - 4 2 4 .
Duan, G . Y., Xiao, X . M . , W u , X.J., H u , J.H., Gao, Q.G.,
L i u , Y . L . , Q i n , M . H . , and Q u , Y . M . 1999. T h e effect o f
d i f f e r e n t i n t e r c r o p p i n g m e t h o d s w i t h w h e a t o n the y i e l d
o f g r o u n d n u t s . J o u r n a l o f H e n a n A g r i c u l t u r a l Sciences
5:15.
D u b a r r y , J . R . , A l v a r e z , A . R . , and M a s c a r o , D . 1999.
M y c o t o x i c o s i s i n a f e e d l o t i n the p r o v i n c e o f L a Pampa,
Argentina. Revista de M e d i c i n a Veterinaria 80:55-56.
D u r r e n c e , J.S., P e r r y , C . D . , V e l l i d i s , G . , T h o m a s , D . L . ,
and K v i e n , C . K . 1999. M a p p i n g peanut y i e l d v a r i a b i l i t y
w i t h an experimental load cell y i e l d m o n i t o r i n g system ( R o b ert, P.C., Rust, R . H . , L a r s o n , W . E . , eds.). Pages 1 1 3 1 - 1 1 4 0
i n the P r o c e e d i n g s o f the F o u r t h I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f e r ence o n P r e c i s i o n A g r i c u l t u r e , 1 9 - 2 2 Jul 1998, St. P a u l ,
Minnesota, U S A . Minnesota, U S A : A m e r i c a n Society o f
Agronomy.
E n j a l r i c , F . , N g u e m a , J . , H u g o t , N . , and C h a n , H . T . S .
1999. Hevea brasiliensis a n d f o o d i n t e r c r o p s : a d e v e l o p ment-oriented c r o p p i n g system in Gabon. Plantations,
Recherche, D e v e l o p p e m e n t 6 : 5 - 1 2 .
F e r n a n d e s , E . M . , and R o s o l e m , C . A . 1999. G r o u n d n u t
y i e l d a s a f f e c t e d b y l i m i n g a n d d r y i n g m e t h o d . Pesquisa
A g r o p e c u a r i a Brasileira 3 4 : 1 1 - 2 0 .
H a j i m o r a d , M . R . , H u , C . C . , and G h a b r i a l , S.A. 1999. M o lecular c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f a n a t y p i c a l O l d W o r l d strain o f
peanut stunt v i r u s . A r c h i v e s o f V i r o l o g y 1 4 4 : 1 5 8 7 - 1 6 0 0 .
H a J o o n , J . , and I m a i , K . 1999. C u l t i v a r differences o f p h o tosynthesis and r e s p i r a t i o n i n peanut leaves. B u l l e t i n o f
the F a c u l t y o f A g r i c u l t u r e , M e i j i U n i v e r s i t y 1 1 9 : 2 1 - 2 5 .
H a r i t h a , V . , V i j a y a l a k s h m i , K . , M u r t h y , M . M . K . , and
R a o , P . A . 1999. R e l a t i v e preference of Caryedon serratus
(Olivier) ( C o l e o p t e r a : B r u c h i d a e ) f o r selected g r o u n d n u t
genotypes i n storage. Journal o f E n t o m o l o g i c a l Research
23:71-74.
94 I A N 20, 2000
loannou-Kakouri, E., Aletrari, M . , Christou, E.,
I s o d a , A . , N a k a z a t o , H . , N o j i m a , H . , and T a k a s a k i , Y .
1999. E f f e c t s o f p a c l o b u t r a z o l o n d r y m a t t e r d i s t r i b u t i o n
a n d c a n o p y structure i n g r o u n d n u t s . T e c h n i c a l B u l l e t i n o f
F a c u l t y o f H o r t i c u l t u r e , C h i b a U n i v e r s i t y 53:1-6.
J a n a , T . K . , M a n d a l , B . K . , and S a n j o y S a h a . 1999. A g r o e c o n o m i c aspects of rice (Oryza sativa)-groundnut ( A r a c h i s
hypogaea) i n t e r c r o p p i n g . I n d i a n J o u r n a l o f A g r i c u l t u r a l
Sciences 6 9 : 2 2 7 - 2 2 9 .
J u n , H . J . , I m a i , K . 1999. C u l t i v a r differences o f p h o t o s y n thesis a n d r e s p i r a t i o n i n p e a n u t leaves. B u l l e t i n o f the
Faculty o f Agriculture, M e i j i University 119:21-25.
K a n d a l a m G i r i d h a r , and G a j e n d r a G i r i . 1999. D r y matter
accumulation and nutrient uptake of groundnut varieties
as influenced by chlormequat chloride and phosphorus
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A m i n o a c i d a v a i l a b i l i t y o f f o u r practical feed ingredients
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98 I A N 20, 2000
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ScientiaAgricola 56:371-376.
I A N 20, 2000
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RA-00359
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