1. Art and Diseño

9
On someproblemsin thesemiotics
ofvisualart:
fieldand vehiclein image-signs*
MeyerSchapiro
My themeis thenon-mimetic
elementsof theimage- creationof potteryand an architecture
withregular
signandtheirroleinconstituting
thesign.It isnotclear coursesofjointedmasonry.
It mighthavecomeabout
towhatextenttheseelements
arearbitrary
andtowhat throughtheuse of theseartifacts
as sign-bearing
obextenttheyinhereintheorganicconditions
ofimaging jects.The inventive
imagination
theirvalue
recognized
and perception.Certainof them,like the frame,are as grounds,
andintimegavetopictures
andwriting
on
historicallydeveloped,highlyvariable forms; yet smoothedand symmetrical
supportsa corresponding
thoughobviouslyconventional,
theydo nothaveto be regularity
of direction,
spacingand grouping,
in harlearnedfortheimageto be understood;
theymayeven monywiththe formof theobjectliketheassociated
value.
ornament
oftheneighboring
acquirea semantic
parts.Throughtheclosure
We takeforgranted
meansthe and smoothness
todayas indispensable
ofthepreparedpicturesurface,
often
rectangular
formof thesheetof paperand its clearly witha distinctcolorof thereservedbackground,
the
defined
spaceofitsown,incontrast
smoothsurfaceon whichonedrawsandwrites. imageacquireda definite
to
But sucha fieldcorresponds
to nothingin natureor theprehistoric
wallpaintings
and reliefs;thesehad to
mentalimagery
wherethephantoms
ofvisualmemory competewiththenoise-like
accidents
andirregularities
comeup in a vagueunboundedvoid.The studentof ofa groundwhichwasno lessarticulated
thanthesign
prehistoric
artknowsthattheregularfieldis an ad- and could intrudeupon it. The new smoothness
and
ofart. closuremade possiblethe latertransparency
vancedartifact
a longdevelopment
presupposing
of the
The cavepaintings
oftheOld StoneAgeareon an un- picture-plane
whichtherepresentation
without
ofthreepreparedground,theroughwallofa cave; theirregu- dimensional
spacewouldnothavebeensuccessful.1
laritiesofearthandrockshowthrough
theimage.The
Withthisnewconception
of theground,theartof
artistworkedthenona fieldwithnosetboundaries
and representation
I have said, a fieldwitha
constructs,
thought
so littleofthesurfaceas a distinct
groundthat distinct
plane(orregularcurvature)
ofthesurfaceand
he oftenpaintedhis animalfigureovera previously a definite
thatmaybe thesmoothed
boundary
edgesof
paintedimagewithouterasingthelatter,as ifit were an artifact.
The horizontals
ofthisboundary
areat first
invisibleto the viewer.Or if he thoughtof his own supporting
groundlineswhichconnectthefigures
with
as occupying
onthewalla placereserved each otherand also dividethe surfaceinto parallel
work,perhaps,
forsuccessivepaintingsbecause of a specialriteor bands,establishing
morefirmly
theaxesofthefieldas
custom,as one makesfiresyearafteryearon thesame coordinates
ofstability
andmovement
intheimage.
hearthoverpastembers,he didnotregardthisplaceas
We do notknowjustwhenthisorganization
ofthe
a fieldin thesamesensein whichlaterartistssawtheir imagefieldwas introduced;
studentshavegivenlittle
figuresas standingout froma suitablycontrasting attention
to thisfundamental
changein art whichis
ground.
basicforourownimagery,
evenforthephotograph,
the
The smoothpreparedfieldis an invention
ofa later filmandthetelevision
screen.In scrutinizing
thedrawIt accompanies
stageofhumanity.
thedevelopment
of ingsof childrenforthe mostprimitive
processesof
polishedtoolsintheNeolithicandBronzeAgesandthe image-making,
one forgets
thatthesedrawings,
made
* This paperwasoriginally
presented
at theSecondInternational I Certainoftheseobservations,
inmycoursesat Columpresented
ColloquiumonSemiotics,
Kazimierz,
Poland,September
I966. [First bia University
thirty
yearsago,willbe foundinthedoctor'sthesisof
publishedin SemioticaI (I969), pp. 223-42, andreprinted
herewith mypupil,MiriamS. Bunim,"Space in mediaevalpainting
and the
thekindpermission
oftheauthorandpublisher,
Mouton& Co, The forerunners
New York(ColumbiaUniversity)
ofperspective,"
I940.
Hague.]
IO
MEYER SCHAPIRO
on rectangular
sheetsofsmoothedpaper,oftenwitha andgrounddid notcomposefortheeyean inseparable
in lookingat an admiredwork
variety
of colors,inherittheresultsofa longculture, unity.A connoisseur
justas theirsimplespeech,afterthephaseoflallation, couldregardtheemptygroundandmargins
as nottruly
showselementsofan alreadydevelopedphoneticsys- partsofthepainting,
as thereaderofa bookmightsee
temand syntax.Theirformsare soonadaptedto the themargins
andinterspaces
ofthetextas opentoannoartificial
fieldin important
rectangular
respects;their tation.It is clearthatthesenseofthewholedependson
solidfilling
ofthebackground
reflects
thepictures
they habitsofseeingwhichmayvary.A Chineseartist,
senhaveseen; and theirchoiceof colorspresupposesan sitiveto thesmallestinflection
ofa brushstroke
andits
adult'spalette,a systemof tonesacquiredthrougha placeinthepicture,
is notdisturbed
bythewriting
and
longexperience
ofrepresentation.
The remarkable
ex- sealsaffixed
totheoriginal
work.He no moreseesthem
in our zoos should as partsofthepicturethanwe seea painter'ssignature
pressionsof the monkey-painters
fromthispointofview.It is we who inthelowerpartofa landscapepainting
alsobe considered
as an objectin
elicitthosefascinating
resultsby puttingpaper and theforeground
of therepresented
space. In Assyrian
in art,too,whichalreadypossesseda preparedand encolorsinthemonkey's
hands,justas wegetmonkeys
thecircusto ridea bicycleand to perform
otherfeats closedground,
therepresented
bodiesofkingsandgods
withdevicesthatbelongto civilization.
No doubtthat weresometimes
incisedwithwriting
thatcrossedthe
themonkey's
as an artistdisplaysimpulsesand outlinesofthefigures.
activity
reactions
thatarelatentin hisnature;butlikehisselfIn a reverseorderand fromothermotivesartistsin
resulton ourowntimepreserve
on wheelstheconcrete
onthepaperorcanvastheearlier
balancingadjustment
itappears,is a productof linesand touchesof colorwhichhave been applied
paper,howeverspontaneous
whichmeans,ofcourse,theinfluence
in theprocessofpainting.
of successively
domestication,
Theyadmitat
a culture.It is an experiment
thata civilizedsociety leastsomeofthepreparatory
andoftententative
forms
ina sense,with as a permanently
visibleand integrated
makeswiththeanimalas itexperiments,
partof the
the childin elicitingfromhimthespeechand other image;thesearevaluedas signsofthemaker'sactionin
habitsofhiscommunity.
producing
thework.We understand
thisas another
aim
The character
oftheoldestimage-fields
thatweknow thantheoverlayofimageon imagein prehistoric
art;
-untreated and unbounded-is not just an archaic butit is worthnotingas thesourceofa similarvisual
of thepast. If it seemsto us naturalto effectreachedfroman altogether
phenomenon
different
pointof
createa smoothdelimitedgroundfortheimageas a view.I havenodoubtthatthemodernpractice
disposes
of clearperception,
worksas a beautiful
necessity
we mustrecognize,
collective
too, us to see theprehistoric
thecontinued
useofthemoreprimitive
groundinlater palimpsest.
Modernart,sincetheRenaissance,
culturesincludingour own. The wall-paintings
of
whileaimingata
in Egypt(ca. 3500 Bc) recallin their stricter
Hierakonpolis
unityof a picture-a unitythatincludesthe
of thefigureand thereservedshapesof the
scattered
unboundedgroupsthecaveand rockimages interplay
also examplesofthedeliberately
made
oftheOld StoneAge;andmanyprimitive
peoplescon- ground-offers
tinueto drawand incisetheirpictureson untreated, fragment
or sketchas wellas incomplete
workthatis
unenclosedsurfaces.The spontaneousgraffiti
on the prizedforqualitiesoftheunfinished
state,andeventhe
ofa smallpartofthefieldwithout
wallsof ancientRomanbuildingsare,in thisrespect, painting
regardtothe
notdifferent
fromthosedrawntoday;likethemodern voidsaroundit.
It is possiblethattheunprepared
onestheydisregard
thefieldtheyhaveusurped,even
groundhada positive
an
of
the
defacing existing
picture.Butthefield
image
meaningfortheprehistoric
painter,butthisidea
is notalwaysinviolateevenin a workpreserved
with mustremainhypothetical.
One can supposethatthe
as a preciousobject.In Chinawherepainting artistidentified
reverence
withtherockor cavethrough
thepriwas a noblearttheownerdid nothesitateto writea mordialroughnessof the groundof his picture.A
commentin verseor proseon the unpaintedback- modernartist,
JoanMiro,whoprobably
knowstheold
groundof a sublimelandscapeand to stamphis seal rockpaintings
ofhisnativeandcherished
Catalonia,has
on thepicturesurface.The groundofthe feltthe attraction
of the irregular
surfaceof the enprominently
imagewashardlyfelttobe partofthesignitself;figure duringrockand used itas a groundon whichto paint
On someproblemsin thesemiotics
ofvisualart
I
I
hisdirectly
conceivedsign-like
abstractforms.Others tobemoreformally
presented
andcomplete
andtoexist
have paintedon pebblesand on foundfragments
of ina worldofitsown.
naturaland artificial
objects,exploiting
theirregulari- More recently
paintings
havebeenhungaltogether
tiesofthegroundandthephysiognomy
oftheobjectas unframed.
The frameless
modernpictureexplainsin a
oftheframeinolderart.The frame
partofthecharmofthewhole.But I inclineto think sensethefunctions
thattheprehistoric
surfacewasneutral,
a stillindeter- wasdispensable
whenpainting
ceasedtorepresent
deep
minatebeareroftheimage.
spaceand becamemoreconcerned
withtheexpressive
Besides the preparedgroundwe tend to take for and formalqualitiesof the non-mimetic
marksthan
grantedtheregularmarginand frameas essentialfea- withtheirelaboration
intosigns.If thepaintingonce
turesoftheimage.It is notcommonly
realizedhowlate recededwithin
theframed
space,thecanvasnowstands
is theframe.It was precededbytherec- outfromthewallas an objectin itsownright,witha
an invention
as tangibly
tangularfielddividedintobands; the horizontals
paintedsurfacewhether
ofabstract
themesor
the witha representation
and supporting
groundlinesor stripsconnecting
whichis predominantly
flatand
weremorepronounced
figures
visuallythanthesepa- showstheactivity
oftheartistin thepronounced
lines
itwaslatein and strokesor the higharbitrariness
ratevertical
edgesofthefield.Apparently
of the selected
the second milleniumBC (if even then) beforeone formsand colors.Althoughit is in keepingwiththis
thoughtof a continuousisolatingframearoundan aspectofmodernpainting,
theunframed
canvashasnot
likea citywall.When becomeuniversalevenfornew art.But thestripsof
enclosure
image,a homogeneous
salientand whenenclosingpictureswithperspective woodor metalthatnowframemanypaintings
are no
ornamented
enclosures
that
backintodepth longerthesalientandrichly
setsthepicturesurface
views,theframe
andhelpsto deepentheview;itis likea windowframe oncehelpedto accentthedepthofsimulatedspacein
of
theideaofthepreciousness
throughwhichis seen a space behindtheglass.The thepictureandconveyed
framebelongsthento thespaceoftheobserverrather theworkofartthrough
itsgildedmount.Theyarethin
oftenflushwiththeplaneofthecanvas,
thanoftheillusory,
three-dimensional
borders
worlddisclosed discreet
device and in theirsimplicity
withinand behind.It is a finding
and focussing
theyassertalso therespectfor
inthepracticeoftheart.Withandintegrity
placedbetweentheobserverand the image.But the frankness
thepainting
frame
and
mayenteralsointotheshapingofthatimage;and outa frame,
appearsmorecompletely
in- modestly
thecontrasts
theartist'swork.A parallelto theframeless
notonlythrough
andcorrespondences
is themodernsculpture
cited by its strongform,especiallyin architecturalpainting
without
a pedestal;it
butalso,as in modernstyles,in thepractice is eithersuspendedorplaceddirectly
on theground.
sculpture,
theforeground
ofcutting
objectsoddlyat theframeso
Our conception
oftheframeas a regularenclosure
thattheyappearto be close to theobserverand seen isolating
thefieldofrepresentation
fromthesurroundfrom
anopening.Byintercepting
thesidethrough
these ing surfacesdoes not applyto all frames.There are
inwhichelements
objectstheframeseemstocrossa represented
fieldthat pictures
andreliefs
oftheimagecross
extendsbehindit at the sides.Degas and Toulouse- theframe,
as iftheframewereonlya partofthebackLautrecwereingeniousmastersof
thiskindofimagery. groundand existedin a simulatedspace behindthe
A relatedmodernpractice:thecroppedrectangular figure.
oftheframe
Suchcrossing
is oftenan expressive
without
frameor margin,
as movingappearsmore
picture,
helpsus to see more device;a figurerepresented
now activein crossingthe frame,as if unboundedin his
clearlyanotherroleoftheframe.Such cropping,
in
books
and motion.The framebelongsthenmoreto the virtual
illustrations
commonin photographic
and
the
the
out
magazines,
brings
partial, fragmentary
spaceoftheimagethantothematerial
surface;theconis
the
main
in
the
even
where
vention
an
the
is
naturalized
as
element
of
contingent
image,
object
picturespace
isolated ratherthanoftheobserver'sspaceor thespaceofthe
centered.The pictureseemsto be arbitrarily
intotheob- vehicle.In medievalartthisviolationof theframeis
froma largerwholeand brought
abruptly
server'sfieldofvision.The croppedpictureexistsas if common,but thereare examplesalreadyin classical
butas a
forhismomentary
glanceratherthanfora setview.In art.The frame
appearsthennotas an enclosure
withthistype,theframedpictureappears pictorial
milieuoftheimage.Andsinceitmayserveto
comparison
12
MEYER SCHAPIRO
enhancethemovement
ofthefigure,
wecanunderstand severalfigures
arepresented;
thentheintervals
between
an oppositedevice:theframethatbendsand turnsin- themproducea rhythm
ofbodyandvoidanddetermine
wardintothefieldofthepicture
tocompress
orentangle effects
ofintimacy,
encroachment
andisolation,
likethe
thefigures
(thetrumeau
ofSouillac,theImagoHominis intervals
ofspaceinan actualhumangroup.
in theEchternach
Gospels,Paris,Bibl. Nat. ms. lat.
The sameproperties
of thefieldas a space witha
9389).
latentexpressiveness
are exploitedin printedand
Besidesthesevariantsof theframe-field
relationin paintedverbalsigns.In thehierarchy
ofwordson the
artI mustmention
anotherthatis equallyinteresting: titlepageofa bookorona posterthemorepotentwords
theframeis sometimes
an irregular
formthatfollows are notonlyenlargedbut oftenisolatedon a ground
theoutlinesoftheobject.It is no longera pre-existingwhichis moreopenat thesides.
feature
oftheimage-vehicle
orgroundbutanaddedone
It is clearthatthepicturefieldhas local properties
thatdependson thecontents
oftheimage.The image thataffect
oursenseofthesigns.Thesearemostobvious
comesfirst
and theframeis tracedaroundit.Herethe in thedifferences
ofexpressive
qualitybetweenbroad
frameaccentstheformsof thesignsratherthanen- andnarrow,
upperandlower,leftandright,
central
and
closesa fieldon whichthesignsareset.As intheexam- peripheral,
thecorners
andtherestofthespace.Where
ples wherethe figureburststhroughthe frame,the thereis no boundaryofthefield,as in cave paintings
independence
andenergy
ofthesignareassertedinthe andunframed
imageson rocksorlargewalls,wecenter
detoursforcedupontheframebytheimage(Vezelay). theimageinourview;intheboundedfieldthecenteris
We learnfromtheseworksthatalthough
thestrictly predetermined
bytheboundaries
orframe
andtheisoframeseemsnaturaland satisfies latedfigureis characterized
enclosing
rectangular
in partbyitsplacein the
a needforclarity
in isolating
theimagefortheeye,itis field.Whenstationed
inthemiddleithasanother
quaonlyone possibleuse of theframe.The formcan be lityforus thanwhensetat theside,evenifbalanced
variedto producequite oppositeeffects,
whichalso thenbya smalldetailthatadds a weightto thelarger
someneedor concept.All thesetypesareintel- void.A visualtensionremains,
satisfy
and thefigure
appears
ligibleas devicesofordering
andexpression,
butnoone anomalous,
evenspiritually
displaced,
strained;
yetthis
ofthemis necessary
or universal.
Theyshowthefree- appearancemaybe a deliberately
as
soughtexpression
inarbitrarily
domofartists
devia- ina portrait
effective
constructing
byMunchinwhichtheintroverted
subject
tionsfromwhatmightappearatfirst
tobe inherent
and standsa littletothesideinan empty
is
space.The effect
all thestronger
immutable
a prioriconditions
sincetheself-constrained
ofrepresentation.
postureand
Let us return
totheproperties
ofthegroundas a field. otherelementsof theimageworkto reinforce
an exofthebrooding
AlthoughI haveused theword"neutral"to describe pression
andwithdrawn.
The tendency
theuntreated
itmustbe saidthattheunpainted to favoran off-center
surface,
positionhas beennoticedin the
ofemotionally
emptyfieldarounda figureis not entirely
devoidof drawings
disturbed
children.
effect
evenin the mostcasual unbounded The qualitiesofupperand lowerareprobablyconexpressive
representations.
on thenarrow nectedwithour postureand relationto gravity
Imaginea drawnfigure
and
thatconfines
himbetween perhapsreinforced
spaceofa pieceoffieldstone
by our visualexperienceof earth
on and sky.The difference
can be illustrated
edgesclosetothebody;andimaginethesamefigure
by theuna broaderthoughstillirregular
of a wholewithsuperposedelementsof
surface.In thefirsthe invertibility
willappearmoreelongated
inthesecond unequalsize(see diagram).
andcramped,
he standsin a spacethatallowshimmorefreedom
of
movement
and suggeststhe potentialactivityof the
A
body.The spacearounditis inevitably
seennotonlyas
butalso as
groundin thesenseof Gestaltpsychology,
B
to thebodyandcontributing
toitsqualities.
belonging
For theaesthetic
eyethebody,and indeedanyobject,
seemstoincorporate
theempty
B
spacearounditas a field
A
ofexistence.
The participation
ofthesurrounding
void
intheimage-sign
ofthebodyis stillmoreevidentwhere
ofvisualart
On someproblemsin thesemiotics
13
with artat an earlystage.Thereareexamplesin whichleftThoughformedof thesamepartsthe rectangle
directions
coexistinthesamework
notthesameas the wardandrightward
smallA overlargeB is expressively
thescenesto
is non- ofnarrative
one withthesameB overA. The composition
imagery;theyaccommodate
ora liturgical
focus,as inthe
symmetry
as architectsrecognizein designinga an architectural
commutative,
Nuovoin
holdsforsingleelements;the mosaicsonthetwonavewallsofS. Apollinare
faSade.The sameeffect
totheEast
advancing
figures
cubistpainter,JuanGris, remarkedthata patchof Ravennawithprocessional
visualweightin theupperand end,whiletheGospelscenesabovethemproceedfrom
yellowhas a different
andrightin judging EasttoWest.Withineachseriesleft-to-right
lowerpartsofthesamefield.Nevertheless,
havean identicalgoalandconnotation.
in orderto to-left
theirwork,artistsofteninvertthepainting
in boustrophedon
One can findalso representations
of formsor colors,theirbalance
see therelationships
ina second
andreturning
left-to-right
to theobjectsrepre- order,beginning
withoutreference
and harmony,
fromrighttoleft(ViennaGenesis).
of register
abstraction
sented.But thisis onlyan experimental
is thesequencefromtop
ofconvention
Less a matter
of
judgedin a scrutiny
one aspect;theunityis finally
scenes.The
orien- to bottomin seriesofextendedhorizontal
(ornon-mimetic)
theworkinitspropermimetic
vertical
sequenceof
tation.However,abstractpainterstodaydiscovernew sameordergovernsthedownward
from
whichmustbe distinguished
writing,
even a preferred horizontal
throughthatinversion,
possibilities
orderofthesignsin ChineseandJapanese
form.The late FernandLegerconceivedas a goal of thevertical
and of thesinglelettersin certainGreekand
paintingan imageequallyvalidin all posi- writing
figurative
CE.
on pictures
afterthe6thcentury
tionsoftherotatedcanvas;thisideainspiredhispaint- Latininscriptions
with
field
superposed
oftheupperpartofa
seenfromabove,andhas The priority
ingsofdiversandswimmers,
is nota strictrule,however.One can
representations
in a floormosaic.
an obviousapplication
ofchurches
on doorways
play pointto medievalsculptures
callsintofuller
ofmovement
The representation
thelower
from
sequenceproceeding
withrespecttoqualitiesofthedifferentwitha narrative
a cryptesthesia
this
works
ina field.We livemoreinthehori- panelsupwards(Moissac,Verona).In some
axesanddirections
climactic
where
the
the
motivated
order
is
content;
by
thantheverticaland we arenotsurzontaldimension
seriesis thefinalone,as in imagesof
prisedto learnthatthesamelinelooksshorterwhen sceneina vertical
The feltspaceofevery- thelifeofChrist,it willbe placedat thetop.One may
thanwhenvertical.
horizontal
thoughwelearntousethe note,too, thatwe see a verticalline or a columnas
is anisotropic
dayexperience
metricpropertiesof an objectiveuniformspace in movingupwards.
ofdirection
mayarisealsoforthesingle
The problem
physicalobjectsto eachother.
accommodating
in profile
ifit is presented
isolated
particularly
in
figure,
and
is offigures movement
Whererepresentation
is the
in
A
example
action.
familiar
in
whether
at
rest
or
be
extended
of successiveepisodes,theimagemay
in
When
relief
and
painting.
figure
like
striding
to
be
read
Egyptian
which
have
bands
broadandsuperposed
in theroundsucha figurealwaysstands
in represented
direction
text.There is thena prevailing
a written
ofthisrulesugthe
left
as
a
with
the
legadvanced;therigidity
if
to
are
even
eye
given
they
certainpictures,
meaning.
geststhatthe posturehas a conventional
whole.
simultaneous
a superon
of
the
left
the
choice
Whether
depends
leg
it
arises
conventional;
such
is
not
Directednessas
on some
in
or
the
first
stition
marching
step
concerning
and
the
represented
of
objects
nature
from
thetransitive
transwhen
cannot
natural
I
However,
say.
disposition,
in
of
order
of
time
an
an
order
expressing
thetaskof
choice
ofleg
or
the
field
of
posed
to
the
relief,
painting
in
successive
directedness
of
space. The requirement
oftheprofiled
bythedirection
Though toadvanceis determined
scenesadmitsa choiceofdirection.
contiguous
if
theleftlegis brought
forward;
choice,for body;ifitfacesright,
itisnotanarbitrary
itbecomesa convention,
chosena good itfacesleft,itis therightlegthatis advanced.In both
in thedirection
we sometimes
recognize
pointofview,
leg,fromtheobserver's
orartistic
problem.The varying cases,thefarther
solutionofa technical
Thisprinciple
movement.
andevenofdown- istheonechosentorepresent
orright-to-left
ordersofleft-to-right
the
in pictorialart,as in writing, maybe reconciledwiththestrictrulegoverning
wardverticalalignment
in theroundbyourassumingthatthelatterwas
ofthe figure
wereprobablydetermined
byspecialconditions
field,thetechnique,and thedominantcontentof the conceivedfromhis rightside; he facesand moves
I14
MEYER SCHAPIRO
in which,fromtheobserver's
the
viewpoint,
and hencehis leftleg,as thefarther
rightward
leg,is sentation
left
part
of
the
picture
surface
is
the
carrier
of
the
advanced.2
inthefield,whichis also
values.Thisreversal
In thestationary
isolatedfigure,
unconditioned
bya preferred
in themirror,
is a goodexample
thepredominance
oftheleftprofile thatoftheself-image
controlling
context,
thatmayarisebetweenthequalitative
hasbeenexplainedbya physiological
fact.The leftward of theconflict
ofthefield,whether
inherent
oracquired,and
profile
ofthehead,itis supposed,owesitsgreater
fre- structure
objects.In theMiddleAgesone
quencyto theeasiermovement
(pronation)
ofthear- thatoftherepresented
of the variablepositionsof
tist'srighthandand wristinward,i.e., to theleft,as debatedthe significance
appearsalso in thefreehand
drawingofcircles:right- Peterand Paul at the leftand rightof Christin old
handedpersonsmostoftentracethe circlecounter- mosaicsin Rome (PeterDamian). Wherethereis no
centralfigure
clockwise
and left-handed,
towhichleftandrightmustbe
clockwise.
(See theworkof dominant
referred,
theviewer'sleftandrightdetermine
Zazzo on children's
drawings.)
bydirect
ratherthanbyreflection,
But oftenan internal
contextdetermines
one or the translation,
theleftandright
in profile
otherdirection
a peculiarity
ofone ofthefield,justas inactuallife.In bothcasestheparts
portraits;
sideofthefaceoftheportrait
signs;butthefieldis opento
subjectis enoughtolimit ofthefieldarepotential
the choice. Wherethe artistis freeto choose any reversal
in submitting
to an orderofvaluesin theconpositionof the face,the particular
profileis selected textoftherepresented
objectsor in thecarrierof the
image.
becauseofsomevaluedqualityfoundin thisview.
on theconventional,
Theseobservations
thenatural, The lateralasymmetry
ofthefieldmaybe illustrated
thefreely
chosenandthearbitrary
intheuseofleftand byanotherpeculiarity
ofpicturesand ofbuildings.If
rightin theimagefieldbringsus to a largerproblem: wepairtwoforms,
onetall,theothershort(as inthediawhether
theleftandright
sidesofa perceptual
fieldhave grambelow),reversal
alterstheirappearance
noticeably.
different
hasgrownup
inherently
qualities.A literature
on thesubject,someauthorsaffirming
thattheunlike
of the two sides are bioqualitiesand irreversibility
of the
logicallyinnateand arisefromtheasymmetry
andespecially
itshandedness;
othersconnect
organism
themwithculturalhabitin readingand writing
and a
in space.A particular
orientation
dominant
customary
content
thefeeling
forleftandright
mayalsoinfluence
in images.We stilllack a comparative
experimental
ofpictures
indifferent
toreversal
studyofthereactions
cultures
andespecially
inthosewithdifferent
directions
in writing.
tosemiotics
Pertinent
isthefactthatleftandright
are
alreadydistinguished
sharplyin the signified
objects
themselves.
Everyoneis awareofthevitalimportance
of leftand rightin ritualand magic,whichhas influencedthemeaning
ofthesetwowords,
theirmetaphoricin everyday
al extensions
speechas termsforgoodand
evil,correctand awkward,properand deviant.The
ofthedeity'sorruler'srightsideinpictures
significance
and ceremony
as the commonly,
thoughnot univera represally,morefavored
side,determines,
however,
2 See HeinrichSchafer,
Grundlagender lgyptischenRundbildnerei
und ihre Verwandschaft
mitdenender Flachbildnerei,Leipzig1923, p.
27.
On someproblemsin thesemiotics
ofvisualart
I5
Likethevertically
joinedunequalrectangles
considered disturbor weakenthiseffect.
Yet in thereversalof a
earlier,thelateralgroupingis non-commutative.
The picturenewqualitiesemergethatmaybe attractive
to
andin "A andB," wherethetwoelements
differ
decid- theartistandmanyviewers.
edlyin size or formor color,is adjunctive,
not conBesidesthesecharacteristics
of the field-theprejunctive;and the positionin the fieldexpressesthis paredsurface,
theboundaries,
thepositions
and direcrelation,
justas thepairFatherand Son has a quality tions-we mustconsideras an expressivefactorthe
lackingin Son and Father.If we grantthisdifference,format
oftheimage-sign.
theproblemis whether
I meantheshapeofthefield,itsproporthedominance
ofonesideinthe
By format
visualfieldis inherent
or contingent.
In asymmetricaltionsand dominant
axis,as wellas itssize. I shallpass
compositions
offigures
orlandscapesthechoiceofone overthe role of proportions
and shape of the field,
or theotherside forthemoreactiveor denserpartof whichis a vastproblem,
andconsidersize.
thepictureaffects
theexpression;thereversalgivesa
The size of a representation
maybe motivatedin
strangeaspectto thewhole,whichmaybe morethan different
ways:byan external
or
physicalrequirement,
theshockofreversal
ofa familiar
orhabitualform.Yet bythequalitiesoftheobjectrepresented.
Colossalstait mustbe said thatsomegoodartistsin ourtime,like tues,paintedfigures
thegreatlargerthanlife,signify
theearlyengravers
ofwoodblocks,havebeenindiffer- nessoftheirsubjects;andthetinyformat
mayexpress
entto thereversalof an asymmetrical
in theintimate,
thedelicateand precious.But size may
composition
theprinting
ofan etchedplate,and havenotbothered also be a meansofmakinga signvisibleat a distance,
to anticipateit by firstreversing
the drawingon the apartfrom
thevalueofthecontent,
as onthefilmscreen
plate.Picassohasoftendisregarded
eventhereversal
of andinthegigantic
signsinmodernpublicity.
Or a sign
in theprint.It is an assertion
his signature
ofsponta- maybe exceedingly
smallto satisfy
a requirement
of
neity,
madeallthemorereadily
as thevalueofa drawing economy
oreaseofhandling.
(Thesedifferent
functions
orprinthascometobe lodgedinitsenergy
andfreedom ofsizemaybe comparedroughly
withthefunctions
of
andinthesurprise
ofitsforms
rather
thanintherefine- volumeandlengthinspeech.)It is obviousthattheyare
mentofdetailand subtlety
ofbalance.One can doubt not unconnected;a colossalstatueservesbothfuncthattheartistwouldacceptthereversalofa carefully tions.We distinguish,
atanyrate,twosetsofconditions
in thesize of visualsigns:on theone hand,size as a
composedpainting.
ofvalueand as a function
(I maynotehereas an evidenceofthesophisticated function
ofvisibility;
on the
and acquiredin theperception
of thedifferent
visual otherhand,thesizeofthefieldandthesizeofdifferent
qualityof the leftwardand rightward
directionsin components
oftheimagerelativeto realobjectswhich
reversal
ofcapitalN theysignify
and relativeto eachother.A workmaybe
asymmetrical
wholes,thefrequent
andS inthewriting
adults. largelikea lengthy
ofchildren
andunpracticed
picturescrollbecauseit represents
These sametwoletters
in early so manyobjectsallofaverageheight;oritmaybe small
arealso oftenreversed
medievalLatininscriptions.
thedifferencelikea miniature
andutilizethelimitedspaceto
Apparently
painting
inqualityofthetwodiagonaldirections
ofvalueinthefigures
isnotenoughto expressdifferences
bydifferences
fixthecorrectone firmly
in mindwithoutcontinued ofsize.
motorpractice.)
In manystylesofart,whereobjectsofquitedifferent
How shallweinterpret
theartist'stolerance
ofrever- size in realityare represented
in thesamework,they
sal ifleftand rightare indeeddifferent
in quality?In areshownas ofequal height.The buildings,
treesand
certain
inarchaicartslooknolargerthanthehuman
contexts
thechoiceofthesupposedly
anomalous mountains
side maybe deliberatefora particular
effect
whichis figuresand sometimes
smaller,and are therebysubreinforced
If the ordinatedto them.Here valueor importance
bythecontentoftherepresentation.
is more
sizethantherealphysical
diagonalfromlowerleftto upperrighthas come to decisiveforvirtual
magnitude
I am notsurethatthisis a
coun- oftheobjectsrepresented.
possessan ascendingquality,whilethereversed
forthedominance
hasa descending
an artistwhorepresents convention,
ofthehumanfigure
terpart
over
effect,
figures
ascendinga slopedrawnfromtheupperleftto theenvironment
in the artof
appearsindependently
thelowerrightgivesthereby
a morestrained,
effortfulmanyculturesand amongourownchildrenin reprewill senting
qualityto theascent.Reversalofthecomposition
objects.One doesnotsupposethattheartistis
i6
MEYER SCHAPIRO
unawareoftherealdifferences
insizebetweenmanand meanthatthe significance
of the variouspartsof the
theseobjectsofhisenvironment.
The sizesofthingsin fieldandthevariousmagnitudes
is arbitrary.
It is built
a pictureexpressa conception
thatrequiresno knowl- on an intuitive
senseofthevitalvaluesofspace,as exedgeofa ruleforitsunderstanding.
The association
of periencedin therealworld.For a contentthatis articsizeanda scaleofvalueis alreadygiveninlanguage:the ulatedhierarchically,
thesequalitiesof the fieldbewordsforsuperlatives
of a humanqualityare often come relevantto expressionand are employedand
termsofsize greatest,
highest,
etc.,evenwhenapplied developedaccordingly.
A corresponding
contenttoday
to suchintangibles
as wisdomor love.
wouldelicitfromartistsa similardispositionof the
Size as an expressivefactoris not an independent spaceofa sign-field.
Giventhetaskofmounting
sepavariable.Its effect
changeswiththefunction
and con- ratephotographs
ofmembers
ofa politicalhierarchy
in
textof thesignand withthescale and densityof the a commonrectangular
field,I haveno doubtthatsome
image,i.e., withthe naturalsize of theobjects,their designerswouldhit on the medievalarrangement
in
numberandrangeoftypes;itvariesalsowiththesigni- whichthefounder
is inthemiddle,hischiefdisciplesat
fiedqualities.An interesting
evidenceofthequalitative his sides,and lesserfigureswould be placed in the
non-linear
relationofthesize ofthesignto thesize of remaining
spaces,above or belowaccordingto their
thesignified
objectis givenin an experiment:
children relativeimportance.
And it wouldseemto us natural
whowereaskedtodrawa verylittlemananda bigman thatthephotographs
areofa diminishing
orderofsize
firston a smalland thenon a largesheetof fromthecentertotheperiphery.
together,
thesmallman
The relationofthesize ofthesignto thesizeofthe
paper,enlargedthebigmanbutre-drew
as beforeon thelargesheet.
represented
of
objectchangeswiththe introduction
In Western
medievalart(andprobably
inAsiatictoo) perspectivethechangeis thesamewhether
thepertheapportioning
ofspaceamongvariousfigures
is often spective
isempirical
as inNorthern
Europeorregulated
in whichsize is corre- bya strictruleofgeometrical
subjectto a scaleofsignificance
as in Italy.In
projection
latedwithpositionin the fieldand withpostureand picturesafterthe I 5th centurythe size of a painted
rank.In an imageofChristinMajestywiththe object, human or natural,relativeto its real size,
spiritual
theirsymbols,
evangelists,
and theprophets
oftheOld dependson itsdistancefromthepictureplane.In conTestament(theBible ofCharlestheBald, Paris,Bibl. trastto the medievalpractice,perspective
imposeda
Nat.ms.lat. i), Christis thelargestfigure,
theevange- uniform
scale on thenaturalmagnitudes
as projected
listsaresecondin size,theprophetssmaller,thesym- on thepicturesurface.This was no devaluation
ofthe
bols are thesmallestof all. Christsitsfrontally
in the human,as one mightsuppose;indeed,itcorresponded
centerwithin
a mandorla
framed
bya lozenge;theevan- toa further
humanization
ofthereligious
imageandits
gelistsin profileor three-quarters
viewfillthequad- supernatural
socialor spiritualimfigures.
Greatness,
rantsofthefourcorners;andtheprophets
arebustsin portance,wereexpressedthenthroughothermeans
the incompletelyframedmedallions that open at the
fourangles of the lozenge between the evangelists.Of
the foursymbols which are distributedin the narrow
space between the prophets and Christ, the eagle of
Johnis at the top, in accord withthe highertheological
rankof thisevangelist;it is also distinguishedfromthe
othersymbolsby carryinga roll,whiletheyhold books.
Here it is evidentthatsize, employedsystematically,
is an expressivecoefficientof the parts of the fieldas
places ofthegradedfigures.In certainsystemsofrepresentation which depend on systemsof content the
distinctivevalues of the different
places of the fieldand
the different
magnitudesreinforceeach other.The fact
thatthe use of thesepropertiesof the sign-spaceis conventional,appearingespeciallyin religiousart,does not
such as insignia, costume, posture, illumination,and
place in the field. In the perspectivesystemthe virtuallylargestfiguremaybe an accessoryone in theforeground and the noblest personages may appear quite
small. This is a reversal of the normal etiquette of
picturespace in which the powerfulindividualis often
representedas a largefigureelevated above the smaller
figuresaround him.
It is a common opinion that the two systems,the
hierarchicaland thegeometric-optical,
are equally arbitraryperspectivessince both are governedby conventions. To call both kinds of picturesperspectivesis to
missthe factthatonlythe second presentsin its scale of
magnitudesa perspectivein the visual sense. The first
is a perspective only metaphorically.It ignores the
On someproblemsin thesemiotics
ofvisualart
'7
variations
ofboththeapparent
andtheconstant
sizesof mediumor thetechnique,iftherepresentation
offers
objectsin realityand replacesthembya conventional theminimal
cuesbywhichwerecognize
thedesignated
orderofmagnitudes
thatsignify
theirpowerorspiritual facethrough
all itsvariations
ofpositionandlighting
in
rank.The correspondence
ofthesizesoftheobjectsin actuallife.The thickblackoutlineis an artificial
equithesecondsystemto theirapparentsize in realthree- valentoftheapparentformofa faceand has thesame
dimensional
spaceata givendistancefromtheobserver relationto thefacethatthecolorand thickness
ofthe
is not arbitrary;
it is readilyunderstoodby the un- outlineofa landmassin a maphas to thecharacter
of
trainedspectator
sinceitrestson thesamecuesthathe thecoast.It wouldstilldenotethesamefaceforus, if
respondsto in dealingwithhiseveryday
visualworld. theimage-sign
wereoutlinedinwhiteona blackground,
The correspondence
of thesizesof thefiguresin the justas a written
wordis thesamein different
colored
hierarchical
kindofpicturetotherolesofthefigures
is inks.
indeedconventional
ina sense;buttheconvention
rests
forthepicture-sign,
Distinctive
however,
is theperona naturalassociation
ofa scaleofqualitieswitha scale vasiveness
ofthesemantic
evenwiththearbifunction,
ofmagnitudes.
To speakofAlexander
as theGreatand trariness
of thequalitiesof theimage-substance.
The
to represent
himas largerthanhis soldiersmaybe a picture-sign
seemstobe through
andthrough
mimetic,
buttotheimagination
convention;
itis naturalandself- andthisis thesourceofmanymis-readings
ofoldworks
evident.
ofart.Takenoutoftheimage,thepartsofthelinewill
be seenas smallmaterial
components:
dashes,curves,
I turnnowto thenon-mimetic
elements
ofthepicture dotswhich,likethecubesofa mosaic,havenomimetic
thatmaybe calleditssign-bearing
theimage- meaningin themselves.
matter,
All theseassumea value as
substance
ofinkedorpaintedlinesandspots.(In sculp- distinct
signsoncetheyenterintocertain
combinations,
turethe distinction
betweenthe modeledor carved andtheirqualitiesas markscontribute
something
tothe
material
andthesamesubstanceas a fieldraisesspecial appearance
oftherepresented
objects.According
tothe
problemsthatI shallignorehere.)
context
ofadjoiningorneighboring
marks,
thedotmay
Withrespectto denotation
whichis be a nail-head,a button,or thepupilofan eye; and a
byresemblance,
topictures
as signs,theseelements
specific
haveproper- semi-circle
maybe a hill,a cap,aneye-brow,
thehandle
tiesdifferent
fromtheobjectstheyrepresent.
Consider ofa pot,oranarch.Thereare,itistrue,ona represented
as examplesthedrawnlineofthepencilorbrushorthe objectin a drawingor printmanylineswhichare not
incisedlineproducedbya sharptoolinrepresenting
the viewedas signsoftherealobjectanditspartsina morsameobject.Whilefromtheviewpoint
thatfixeson the phologicalsense.The finehatching
of thegreytones
as a signeverypartofthislinecorresponds
toa and shadowsin an engraving
drawing
corresponds
to no such
the partsof a network
partof the objectrepresented-unlike
on theobject.Yet whenseenat a properdiswordforthatobject fromtheaesthetic
pointofview tance,it rendersdegreesof lightand dark,thesubtle
andstrong
contrasts
thatbringoutthevoluthelineis an artificial
ofitsown. gradations
markwithproperties
and illumination
The artistandthesensitive
oftheobject.Produced
vieweroftheworkofartare me,modeling
characterized
by theirabilityto shiftattention
freely by different
techniques,the signsforthesequalities
in theirsmalland largestructure
fromone aspectto the other,but above all, to dis- mayvarygreatly
and
criminate
and judge thequalitiesof thepicturesub- stillforma wholethatcorresponds
to the
sufficiently
natural
stancein itself.
Onediscovers
recognizable
appearance.
through
ofexecution
The blackness
andthickness
oftheoutlineofa repre- suchelements
another
aspectofsizeinthe
thevariablescaleofcorrespondence.
sentedfaceneednotcorrespond
toparticular
attributes image-signs,
Just
ofthatface.The samefacecanbe represented
oftheirregularities
in many as thesmallmapshowsnothing
of
belowa certain
different
ofthelines terrain
thetechnicalwaysandwithquitevariedpatterns
size,so ina picture
meansofsuggesting
orspotsthatdenotethefeatures.
andillumination
Theymaybe thickor artistic
modeling
There is in the
thin,continuousor broken,withoutour seeingthese affectthe scale of correspondence.
ofa realorimaginedface.The hatchedlinesa smallunitthatdoesnotrepresent
qualitiesas peculiarities
anyitsform,yetwhenrepeatedin
picturewillalwaysbe recognizedas an imageof that thingbyitselfthrough
facein different
of thestyle,the greatnumbersin thepropercontextvividlyevokesa
portraits,
regardless
I8
MEYER SCHAPIRO
objects.A thickeroutlinemakesthe
qualityoftheobject.On theotherhand,in therepresented
particular
fairlylargeelementshaveac- figurelook moremassive;a thinline can add to its
paintings
Impressionist
aspect. An extensiveobject- delicacyandgrace;a brokenlineopenstheformto the
quired a non-mimetic
implion a smallfield,with playoflightandshadowwithalltheirexpressive
space,a landscape,is represented
a consequentincreasein therelativesize of theunits, cationsfortheconceptof things.In a corresponding
inan Impressionist
ofpigment
i.e., relativeto thewholecomplexsignof whichthey waythevisiblepatching
and
ofluminosity
tothegeneraleffect
area part.In thepicturethepartsofthepaintedtree workcontributes
andthemodern,
theancient
in shapeor color air.Bothpolesofsubstance,
are fleckswithoutclearresemblance
ofthewholeandconseemsto enterintothevisualmanifestation
tothepartsoftherealtree.Herethepainting
as wellas subtle
ofoutlookandfeeling
as a veypeculiarities
approacha featureof verbalsigns.The tree-sign
ofthesigns.
itscontext; meanings
as a tree,oftenthrough
wholeis recognized
the
These variationsof the "medium"constitute
butthepartsare hardlylikeleavesand branches.Yet
no basicchangehas takenplace herein thesemantic poetryof theimage,its musicalratherthanmimetic
hascho- aspect.But a greatmodernpainter,GeorgesBraque,
relation
ofimagetoobject.The Impressionist
in poeticlanguage,has
oftherealtree havingin mindthefigurative
appearance
a particular
sentorepresent
objectsin the
oftherepresented
as iffused spokenparadoxically
partslookindistinct
inwhichtheanatomical
Wecanunderas thepoetry
ofpainting.
objects.They stilllifepicture
witheach otherand withneighboring
hisownwork.We areoften
through
thingsveiled standthisremark
innatureas distant
havebeenexperienced
in makingthestronglyoflightand color charmedbyhis inventiveness
and as variations
bytheatmosphere
of paintedlines,spotsand colors
visiondiscernssuch markedstructures
rather
thanas shapes.Perspective
ways;and
thetoneandcon- assumetheaspectofobjectsin unexpected
thebroadsilhouette,
objectsthrough
carriers
as
the
hisobjectsappear
surprising
details.Thoughtheydo conversely
text,withoutdiscriminating
or
of
form.
sourcesoforiginalpatterns
spotsofcolorinthe
objects,certain
resemble
notclearly
are
Iftheelements
ofthevehicleandtheirproperties
and someoftheseare
to sensations,
imagecorrespond
formal
the
of
intimate
its
roots
of
the
aesthetic
of
work,
notofthelocalcolorsofobjectsbutareinducedcontrast
structure
and expression,
theyowe theirdevelopment
ofillumination.
colorsandeffects
and
in
to
variety greatpart theirservicein representatoanotheraspectorcontent
It is thisshiftofinterest
In abstractpainting
thesystemofmarks,strokes
tion.
thearbitrariness
ofreality
thatled paintersto criticize
and distribuand
and
certain
ofcombining
ways
spots
everyinflecalthough
entity,
oftheoutlineas a distinct
forarbithem
on
the
field
become
available
have
a knownand recognizable ting
tionof theline represents
as
of
the
use
without
correspondence
requirement
of
scienwiththesupport
trary
partofitsobject.In asserting
abstracted
The
forms
that
result
are
not
simplified
we
in
and
that
see
signs.
only
tiststhattherearenolines nature
thevisibleworld formsof objects;yetthe elementsappliedin a nonto represent
colors,theyundertook
wholeretainmanyofthequaliuninterpreted
without
defin- mimetic,
color
of
patches
moretruly
byjuxtaposing
mimetic
ties
and
formal
ofthepreceding
relationships
truer
if
was
defended
as
their
system
But
ingoutlines.
those
is
overlooked
art.
This
connection
by
if
into
important
it
introduced
to the semblanceof thingsand
or
a
kind
of
ornament
who
abstract
as
painting
regard
as
of
nature
such
for
aspects
new
signs
picture-making
stateofart.Impressionist
to a primitive
ofcolorsthat as regression
andtheinteractions
lightandatmosphere
in whichthepartshavebeenfreedfromthe
intheolderstyles,itrequired painting,
couldnotbe represented
tothepartsofanobject,
too,andonethatinseveralfeatures ruleofdetailedcorrespondence
a picture-substance
as thearchaicblackoutline-I meanthe is alreadya step towardmodernabstractpainting,
is as arbitrary
of artistsfoundImgeneration
ofpaintand thereliefofcrusty thoughthefollowing
visiblydiscretestrokes
toorealistic.
and texture pressionism
whichviolateboththecontinuity
pigment
Thesearematerial-techni- I havenotedseveralwaysin whichthegroundand
oftherepresented
surfaces.
fieldfortheelements
as a non-mimetic
conceived
thanthe frame,
oftheimageno lessarbitrary
cal components
their
affect
theirmeaningand in particular
andtheEgyptians. ofimagery,
firmblackoutlineoftheprimitives
sense.
as everyartist expressive
The qualitiesoftheimage-substance,
the farI wish,in conclusion,to indicatebriefly
separatefromthequalitiesof
knows,arenotaltogether
On someproblemsin thesemiotics
ofvisualart
I9
reaching
conversion
ofthesenon-mimetic
elements
into artthisallusiontoan actualboundedfieldofa spectator
Theirfunctions
in represen- was mostoftenmadeby representing
positiverepresentations.
withinthepicofexpression
and ture-field
tationin turnlead to newfunctions
itselfthest-able
enclosing
partsofan architecorderina laternon-mimetic
art.
constructive
ture-doorwaysand windowledges thatdefineda
The groundline,thickened
intoa bandand colored realand permanent
frameof visionin thefieldof the
becomesan elementoflandscapeor archi- signata.
separately,
tectural
space.Its upperedgemaybe drawnas an irreThe conception
ofthepicture-field
as corresponding
a terrain
ofrocksand in itsentirety
a horizon,
gularlinethatsuggests
to a segmentof spaceexcerptedfroma
hills.
largerwholeis preserved
inabstract
painting.
Whileno
ornament longerrepresenting
The uniform
background
surface,
through
objects,Mondrianconstructed
a
linesof unequalthickora colorthatsetsitoffsharplyfromthegroundband, gridof verticaland horizontal
ofwhichsomeareincomplete,
willappearas a represented
wallorenclosureofspace. ness,forming
rectangles
theinter- beingintercepted
ofperspective,
Finally,bytheintroduction
by theedge of thefield,as Degas'
become figures
are cutby theframe.In theseregular,though
valsofthepicturesurfacebetweenthefigures
weseemtobehold
three-dimensional
forms
signsofa continuous
spaceinwhich notobviously
commensurable,
the
extended
owe theirvirtualsize,theirforeshort- onlya smallpartofan infinitely
thecomponents
structure;
oftherestis notdeduciblefromthefragmenenedshapes,theirtonalvalues,to theirdistancefrom pattern
thetransparent
pictureplaneandtheeyeofan implied tarysamplewhichis an odd and in somerespectsambalance
observer.
biguoussegmentand yetpossessesa striking
of andcoherence.
In thisconstruction
intoan element
onecanseenotonly
The boundary,
too,is transformed
It maycut theartist'sidealoforderandscrupulous
but
as I havealreadyremarked.
representation,
precision,
the
atthesidesbutalsoaboveandbelow, alsoa modelofoneaspectofcontemporary
figures,
especially
thought:
oftheworldas law-boundintherelation
of
in sucha wayas to represent
therealboundariesofa conception
visionoftheoriginalscene.The simple,elementary
proximate
spectator's
components,
yetopen,unbounded
as a whole.
which andcontingent
boundarythenis likea windowframethrough
oneglimpses
onlya partofthespacebehindit.In older