1. Art and Diseño

Zeitschrift
für
Anglistik
und
Amerikanistik
JAHRESINHALTSVERZEICHNIS
17. Jahrgang
1969
@
V E Β
V E R L A G
E N Z Y K L O P Ä D I E
L E I P Z I G
niv^rsΗ
Bibliothek
Κ tinche*
Z E I T S C H R I F T FÜR
ANGLISTIK UND
17. J a h r g a n g
AMERIKANISTIK
1969
JAHRESINHALTSVERZEICHNIS
Apelt, Walter: Bewußtheit u n d imitati ν-automati scher Spracherwerb
i m modernen Fremdsprachenunterricht
Biester, Hanne-Lore:
A l a n Sillitoe u n d die Sowjetunion
Flamm, Dudley: H e r z o g — V i c t i m a n d H e r o
Höhne, Horst: D i e A n g l i s t i k - A m e r i k a n i s t i k an der Universität
Rostock n a c h 1945
ligner, Brigitte, u n d Wicht, Wolfgang: James A l d r i d g e u n d die
Sowjetunion. E i n e U n t e r s u c h u n g z u Schriftstellerpersönlichkeit
u n d Schaffensmethode
Kirsten, Hans: D i e angelsächsische Besiedlung Britanniens
i n ihrer B e d e u t u n g für die H e r a u s b i l d u n g der altenglischen
Sprache u n d deren Dialektgeographie
Klotz, Günther: Zwei Jahrzehnte englische u n d amerikanische
Belletristik i m A u f b a u - V e r l a g u n d i m V e r l a g
Rütten & L o e n i n g
Lehnert, Martin: M o r p h e m , W o r t u n d Satz i m E n g l i s c h e n .
E i n e kritische B e t r a c h t u n g zur neueren L i n g u i s t i k . 1. T e i l
2. T e i l
Lipka, Leonhard: A s s i m i l a t i o n a n d Dissimilation as R e g u l a t i n g
Factors in English Morphology
Lockwood, W. B. : E t y m o l o g i c a l Miscellany
Lucko, Peter: H e r z o g — M o d e l l der acceptance. E i n e E r w i d e r u n g
Pavlov, Origor: T w o Studies i n Bourgeois I n d i v i d u a l i s m b y
Joseph Conrad
Seehase, Georg: A b b i l d des Klassenkampfes. Aspekte der W e r t u n g
demokratischer u n d sozialistischer L i t e r a t u r i n Großbritannien
Wirzberger, Karl-Heinz:
20 J a h r e Deutsche Demokratische R e p u b l i k .
17 J a h r e Zeitschrift für Anglistik und
Amerikanistik
Wojcik, Manfred: T h e M i m e t i c Orientation of Coleridge's
Aesthetic T h o u g h t
Heft
3
1
9
BUCHBESPRECHUNGEN
A a r t s , F . G . A . M . : T h e Pater Noster of R i c h a r d E r m y t e
(Martin Lehnert)
A n a l y t i c a l B i b l i o g r a p h y of W r i t i n g s on M o d e r n E n g l i s h
Morphology a n d S y n t a x 1877—1960, volume III, volume I V
(Klaus Hansen)
A n n u a l B i b l i o g r a p h y of E n g l i s h Language a n d L i t e r a t u r e .
V o l u m e X L , 1965 (Peter Genzel)
A p e l t , Walter : D i e k u l t u r k u n d l i c h e Bewegung i m U n t e r r i c h t der
neueren Sprachen i n D e u t s c h l a n d i n den J a h r e n 1886 bis 1945
(Herbert Kühn)
A s c h a m , R o g e r : T h e Schoolmaster (Dorothea Siegmund-Schultze)
3
3
3
2
JahresinhaUsverzeichnis
III
Heft
B a i l e y , R i c h a r d W . , a n d B u r t o n , Dolores M . , S. N . S . : E n g l i s h
S t y l i s t i c s : A B i b l i o g r a p h y (Rosemarie Gläser)
Bennebt, J . A . W . : Chaucer's B o o k of F a m e (Martin Lehnert)
Böse, P e t r a : „ W a h n s i n n " i n Shakespeares D r a m e n (Peter Genzel)
B o n h e i m , H e l m u t : A L e x i c o n o f the G e r m a n i n " F i n n e g a n s W a k e "
(Peter Genzel)
Bowers, F r e d s o n : Bibliography and Textual Criticism
(James K. Walton)
B r o w n , J o h n Russell : Shakespeare a n d H i s Comedies
(Klaus Udo Szud.ra)
C l a y b o r o u g h , A r t h u r : T h e Grotesque i n E n g l i s h L i t e r a t u r e
(Robert Weimann)
C r a w f o r d , W i l l i a m R . : B i b l i o g r a p h y o f Chaucer 1954—63
(Martin Lehnert)
D i e k s t r a , F . N . M . : A Dialogue between Reason a n d A d v e r s i t y
(Martin Lehnert)
E a r l y M i d d l e E n g l i s h Verse a n d Prose (Martin Lehnert)
E g r i , P e t e r : J a m e s J o y c e és T h o m a s M a n n (Tibor Szobotka)
E h r e n p r e i s , I r v i n : Swift: the m a n , his works a n d the age.
V o l u m e O n e , V o l u m e T w o (Anselm Schlösser)
E i k o n Basilike (Dorothea Siegmund-Schnitze)
E k , J . A . v a n : F o u r Complementary Structures of Predication
in C o n t e m p o r a r y B r i t i s h E n g l i s h (Barbara Hansen)
E n g l i s h for T o d a y (Günter Wichmann)
E n g l i s h L i t e r a t u r e 1660—1800 (Robert Weimann)
E v a n s , B e r t r a n d : Shakespeare's Comedies (Klaus Udo Szudra)
F r i e d e r i c h , W o l f : Englische Aussprachelehre (Martin Lehnert)
F r y e , R o l a n d M u s h a t : Shakespeare's L i f e a n d T i m e s (Martin Lehnert)
G e r m e r , R u d o l f : T . S. E l i o t s Anfänge als L y r i k e r (1905—1915)
(Günter Walch)
Green, M a r t i n : Re-appraisals : some commonsense readings
in A m e r i c a n literature (Günter Holst)
Gutschow, H a r a l d (Hrsg.): Erfahrungsberichte aus der
Sprachlaborarbeit (Elvira Kr ahi)
H a l l e r , W i l l i a m : E l i z a b e t h I a n d the Puritans
(Dorothea Siegmund-Schnitze)
H a r r a p ' s S t a n d a r d German a n d E n g l i s h D i c t i o n a r y . P a r t O n e :
G e r m a n - E n g l i s h , v o l . 1: A — E , v o l . 2: F — Κ (Klaus Hansen)
Jones, D a n i e l : E v e r y m a n ' s E n g l i s h P r o n o u n c i n g D i c t i o n a r y
(Klaus Hansen)
L e B r o c q u y , S y b i l : Swift's Most V a l u a b l e F r i e n d (Anselm Schlösser)
L i e v s a y , J o h n L . : T h e E l i z a b e t h a n Image o f Italy
(Dorothea Siegmund-Schnitze)
L i n d b e r g , C o n r a d : M S . B o d l e y 959. Genesis — B a r u c h 3.20 in the
E a r l i e r V e r s i o n o f the Wycliffite B i b l e . V o l u m e 4
(Martin Lehnert)
M a h o o d , M . M . : Shakespeare's W o r d p l a y (Martin Lehnert)
Marlowe, Christopher : T h e T r a g i c a l H i s t o r y o f the L i f e a n d D e a t h
o f D o c t o r F a u s t u s (Anselm Schlösser)
Moderner F r e m d s p r a c h e n u n t e r r i c h t (Günter Schlecht)
N o l t e , W i l l i a m H . : H . L . M e n c k e n , L i t e r a r y Critic
(Heinz Wüstenhagen)
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IV
JahresinhaUsverzeichnis
Polytechnisches Wörterbuch. E n g l i s c h - D e u t s c h (Günter
Wichmann)
P o p e , A l e x a n d e r : P a s t o r a l P o e t r y a n d a n E s s a y on C r i t i c i s m . — T h e
I l i a d o f H o m e r . — T h e Odyssey of H o m e r . — T h e Poems of
A l e x a n d e r P o p e . — Poetical W o r k s (Günther Klotz)
P o t t e r , S i m e o n : M o d e r n Linguistics (Klaus
Hansen)
Schäfer, Jürgen: W o r t u n d Begriff ' H u m o u r ' i n der elisabethanischen
K o m ö d i e (Peter Genzel)
Schönfelder, K a r l - H e i n z — Wirzberger, K a r l - H e i n z : Amerikanische
L i t e r a t u r i m Überblick (Sigmar
Pfeil)
Scott, A . F . : C u r r e n t L i t e r a r y T e r m s (Günter Golle)
S e y m o u r , R i c h a r d K . : A B i b l i o g r a p h y o f W o r d F o r m a t i o n i n the
G e r m a n i c Languages (Klaus
Hansen)
S h a k e s p e a r e - J a h r b u c h , B a n d 103 (Helmut
Findeisen)
S t a c k , E d w a r d M . : D a s Sprachlabor i m U n t e r r i c h t (Elvira Kr ahi)
S t a m m , R u d o l f : T h e S h a p i n g Powers at W o r k (Walther Martin)
Swift, J o n a t h a n : Ausgewählte W e r k e i n drei Bänden
(Klaus Udo Szudra)
T h e Chronicle a n d P o l i t i c a l Papers o f K i n g E d w a r d V I
(Dorothea
Siegmund-Schultze)
T o u r n e u r , C y r i l : T h e Revenger's T r a g e d y . — T h e Atheist's T r a g e d y
(Jutta Schlösser)
U h l i g , Claus : Traditionelle D e n k f o r m e n i n Shakespeares tragischer
K u n s t (Walther
Martin)
V i c k e r s , B r i a n : T h e A r t i s t r y of Shakespeare's Prose (Martin Lehnert)
W e i m a n n , R o b e r t : Shakespeare u n d die T r a d i t i o n des V o l k s theaters
(Miklós
Szenczi)
W e i n s t o c k , H o r s t : Mittelenglisches E l e m e n t a r b u c h (Klaus Hansen)
W e n t w o r t h , H a r o l d , a n d F l e x n e r , Stuart B e r g : D i c t i o n a r y o f
A m e r i c a n Slang (Martin Lehnert)
W i j k , A x e l : Rules o f P r o n u n c i a t i o n for the E n g l i s h Language
(Martin Lehnert)
W i l s o n , R . M . : E a r l y M i d d l e E n g l i s h Literature (Martin Lehnert)
W i t t i g , K u r t : Stilkunde des E n g l i s c h e n ( Uwe Carls)
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B i b l i o g r a p h i e sowjetischer Veröffentlichungen zur englischen Sprache.
1955—1965 (Fortsetzung) (Barbara Hansen — Klaus Hansen)
Fortsetzving
Fortsetzung
Fortsetzung
1
2
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Bucheingänge
Bucheingänge
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BIBLIOGRAPHIE
Zeitschrift
für
Anglistik
und
Amerikanistik
Herausgegeben v o n
iMartin Lehnert · Anselm Schlösser · Karl-Heinz Wirzberger
17. J A H R G A N G
VE
Β
V E R L A G
1969,
®
H E F T
E N Z Y K L O P Ä D I E
2
L E I P Z I G
Autoren dieses Heftes
D r . H e l m u t F i n d e i s e n , Wahrnehmungsdozent
J e n a . 7024 L e i p z i g , Pögnerstraße 14.
a n der Friedrich-Schiller-Universität
D u d l e y F l a m m , P h . D . (Columbia U n i v e r s i t y ) , Assistant Professor, E n g l i s h a n d
A m e r i c a n L i t e r a t u r e , S t . O l a f College, N o r t h f i e l d , Minnesota, 55057, U . S . A .
D r . Peter Genzel, D i r e k t o r der Erwerbungsabteilung der Deutschen Staatsbibliothek
B e r l i n . 1615 Zeuthen (Mark), Havelstraße 20.
D r . B a r b a r a H a n s e n , wiss. Assistentin a n der Deutschen A k a d e m i e der Wissenschaf­
ten z u B e r l i n . 110 B e r l i n - P a n k o w , Vesaliusstraße 31.
D r . K l a u s H a n s e n , wiss. Mitarbeiter u n d Lehrbeauftragter a n der H u m b o l d t - U n i ­
versität B e r l i n . 110 B e r l i n - P a n k o w , Vesaliusstraße 31.
P r o f . D r . M a r t i n L e h n e r t , Prof. m i t L e h r s t u h l a n der Humboldt-Universität B e r l i n ,
o r d . Mitglied der Deutschen A k a d e m i e der Wissenschaften z u B e r l i n . 117 B e r l i n Köpenick, Gutenbergstraße 6.
D r . L e o n h a r d L i p k a , wiss. Assistent a m Seminar für Englische Philologie der U n i v e r ­
sität Tübingen. 0 74 Tübingen, Münzgasse 22.
Peter L u c k o , wiss. Assistent
Sredzkistraße 24.
a n der Humboldt-Universität B e r l i n .
1058 B e r l i n ,
Prof. D r . W a l t h e r M a r t i n , P r o f . m i t L e h r s t u h l e m . a n der Karl-Marx-Universität
L e i p z i g . 7022 L e i p z i g , Primavesistraße 9.
Prof. D r . A n s e l m Schlösser, P r o f . m i t L e h r s t u h l a n der Humboldt-Universität B e r l i n .
1162 B e r l i n - F r i e d r i c h s h a g e n , Emrichstraße 82.
P r o f . D r . D o r o t h e a Siegmund-Schultze, P r o f . m i t L e h r a u f t r a g a n der M a r t i n - L u t h e r Universität H a l l e - W i t t e n b e r g . 402 H a l l e , Dölauer Straße 57b.
D r . K l a u s U d o S z u d r a , wiss. Sekretär an der Humboldt-Universität B e r l i n . 1055 B e r l i n ,
Michelangelostraße 123.
Redaktion : D r . Hans Lange
Redaktionsschluß: 1. N o v e m b e r 1968
R e d a k t i o n : D r . H a n s L a n g e , 113 B e r l i n - L i c h t e n b e r g , R a t h a u s s t r . 1. C o p y r i g h t 1969 b y V E B V e r l a g
Enzyklopädie,
701 L e i p z i g 1, Gerichtsweg 26. T e l e p h o n 7801. E r s c h e i n t unter der L i z e n z n u m m e r 1178 des Presseamtes
beim
V o r s i t z e n d e n des Ministerrates der D e u t s c h e n D e m o k r a t i s c h e n R e p u b l i k . D i e Zeitschrift erscheint v i e r m a l i m J a h r .
A l l e R e c h t e v o r b e h a l t e n . S a t z u n d D r u c k : V O B G u t e n b e r g B u c h d r u c k e r e i u n d V e r l a g s a n s t a l t , 53 W e i m a r .
Z \
Bezugsmöglichkeiten:
I n der D e u t s c h e n D e m o k r a t i s c h e n R e p u b l i k ist die Zeitschrift über sämtliche P o s t ä m t e r u n d
d u r c h d e n örtlichen B u c h h a n d e l z u beziehen. I n W e s t d e u t s c h l a n d , W e s t b e r l i n u n d d e m A u s l a n d k a n n die Z e i t ­
schrift d u r c h d e n i n t e r n a t i o n a l e n B u c h - u n d Zeitschriftenhandel bezogen werden. B e s t e l l u n g e n n e h m e n darüber
h i n a u s die F i r m a D e u t s c h e r B u c h - E x p o r t u n d - I m p o r t G m b H , D D R - 7 0 1 L e i p z i g 1. sowie der V e r l a g entgegen.
I n d e n sozialistischen Ländern können B e s t e l l u n g e n über d e n zuständigen P o s tzeitungs v e r trieb erfolgen.
Z u s c h r i f t e n werden direkt a n d e n V e r l a g erbeten. — P r e i s : 7,50 M a r k — E r s c h e i n u n g s d a t u m : A p r i l 1969
Inhalt
Martin
Seite
Lehnert
M o r p h e m , W o r t u n d Satz i m E n g l i s c h e n . E i n e kritische B e t r a c h t u n g zur neueren
L i n g u i s t i k . 2. T e i l
Leonhard
117
Lipka
Assimilation a n d D i s s i m i l a t i o n as R e g u l a t i n g F a c t o r s in E n g l i s h M o r p h o l o g y . . .
159
Dudley Flamm
Herzog — V i c t i m and Hero
174
Peter
Lucko
H e r z o g — M o d e l l der acceptance. E i n e E r w i d e r u n g
189
Buchbesprechungen
R o l a n d M u s h a t F r y e : Shakespeare's L i f e a n d T i m e s (Martin
B r i a n V i c k e r s : T h e A r t i s t r y of Shakespeare's Prose (Martin
M . M . M a h o o d : Shakespeare's W o r d p l a y (Martin
Lehnert)
196
Lehnert)
197
Lehnert)
199
S h a k e s p e a r e - J a h r b u c h , B a n d 103 (Helmut Findeisen)
B e r t r a n d E v a n s : Shakespeare's Comedies (Klaus
J o h n R u s s e l l B r o w n : Shakespeare a n d H i s Comedies (Klaus
Claus
Uhi ig:
Traditionelle
Denkformen
in
201
Udo Szudra)
Shakespeares
203
Udo Szudra)
tragischer
204
Kunst
(Walther Martin)
Petra Böse: ,,Wahnsinn
206
11
i n Shakespeares D r a m e n (Peter Qenzel)
Christopher M a r l o w e : T h e T r a g i c a l H i s t o r y of the L i f e a n d D e a t h of D o c t o r
F a u s t u s (Anselm Schlösser)
T h e Chronicle a n d P o l i t i c a l Papers of K i n g E d w a r d V I . — Roger A s c h a m : T h e
Schoolmaster. — E i k o n B a s i l i k e . — W i l l i a m H a l l e r : E l i z a b e t h I a n d the
P u r i t a n s . — J o h n L . L i e v s a y : T h e E l i z a b e t h a n Image of Italy (Dorothea
Siegm und-Schul ze)
208
210
211
Bibliographie
Bibliographie sowjetischer Veröffentlichungen zur englischen Sprache. 1955—
1965 (Fortsetzung) (Barbara Hansen — Klaus Hansen)
214
Bucheingänge
222
LEONHARD
LIPKA
Assimilation and Dissimilation as Regulating Factors
in English Morphology
1.
T h i s p a p e r a t t e m p t s t o show t h a t t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of those a l l o m o r p h s
of a n u m b e r o f i m p o r t a n t g r a m m a t i c a l m o r p h e m e s i n E n g l i s h ({Z Z 2 , Z 3 , D
D 2 } ) , w h i c h are p h o n o l o g i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d , c a n be r e d u c e d t o o n l y t w o basic
p r i n c i p l e s : a s s i m i l a t i o n a n d d i s s i m i l a t i o n . T h e a l l o m o r p h s / i z / a n d / i d / are
chosen after s i b i l a n t s a n d a l v e o l a r stops r e s p e c t i v e l y , precisely because t h e
other t w o pairs o f a l l o m o r p h s / z , s/ a n d / d , t / are themselves s i b i l a n t s a n d
alveolar stops, a n d s u c h clusters do n o t occur i n E n g l i s h . T h e choice between
the r e m a i n i n g a l l o m o r p h s w h i c h follow n o n - s i b i l a n t s a n d n o n - a l v e o l a r stops is
regulated s i m p l y b y a s s i m i l a t i o n : t h e v o i c e d v a r i a n t s / z / a n d / d / appear after
v o i c e d sounds, t h e voiceless a l l o m o r p h s / s / a n d / t / after voiceless sounds.
T h u s , i f a s o u n d of t h e same k i n d — either s i b i l a n t or a l v e o l a r stop — precedes
the respective m o r p h e m e , we have d i s s i m i l a t i o n , otherwise,, we have a s s i m i ­
l a t i o n of voice.
1?
1 ;
2.1.
W i t h H . A . G l e a s o n we assume t h a t there are b a s i c a l l y t w o types of
a l l o m o r p h s : those w h i c h are phonologically
conditioned a n d those whose ''selec­
t i o n is d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e specific m o r p h e m e or morphemes f o r m i n g t h e con­
t e x t s " w h i c h c a n therefore be t e r m e d morphologically
conditioned. W e s h a l l
e x e m p l i f y t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n a n d t h e notions t i e d u p w i t h i t b y
describing the allomorphs of the E n g l i s h plural morpheme, usually symbol­
ized by {Z }.
2.2.
T h e s i n g u l a r being a n u n m a r k e d category, E n g l i s h nouns f o r m t h e i r
p l u r a l b y a d d i n g a n a l l o m o r p h o f {Z }. T h e vast m a j o r i t y use a n a l l o m o r p h
w h i c h is selected b y t h e n a t u r e o f t h e p r e c e d i n g phoneme :
/ i z / is f o u n d after s i b i l a n t s (fishes, roses, boxes),
jzj after v o i c e d n o n - s i b i l a n t s (boys, stones), a n d
/s/ after voiceless n o n - s i b i l a n t s (cats, cups).
S u c h nouns f o r m a n open class, i . e. n e w words i n the E n g l i s h language j o i n
t h i s class, a n d a d d one o f the three a l l o m o r p h s m e n t i o n e d , a c c o r d i n g to t h e i r
p h o n i c shape. T h i s procedure for m a r k i n g t h e p l u r a l i n t h e n o u n is i n h e r e n t i n
the s y s t e m o f t h e E n g l i s h language. H o w e v e r , i t is n o t t h e o n l y m e t h o d e m ­
ployed.
1
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2.3.1. T h e nouns w h i c h do n o t f o r m the p l u r a l i n the w a y j u s t d e s c r i b e d can
be regarded as a v i r t u a l l y closed class, i . e. t h e i r n u m b e r is r e s t r i c t e d , a n d t h e y
c a n be l i s t e d . T h e y belong t o the ' n o r m ' of the E n g l i s h language w h i c h i s , i n
t h i s respect, the n o n - s y s t e m a t i c l e v e l , o n l y e x p l a i n a b l e h i s t o r i c a l l y , b u t n o t
u n d e r a s y n c h r o n i c , f u n c t i o n a l aspect. O n l y a d i a c h r o n i c a p p r o a c h c a n a c c o u n t
for the difference between box / boxes a n d ox / oxen. F o u r m a i n groups of nouns
c a n be d i s t i n g u i s h e d :
1) / z , i z / is a t t a c h e d , b u t there is a n a d d i t i o n a l change i n the s t e m , more p r e ­
cisely, the final voiceless consonant becomes v o i c e d . T h e r e are three s u b ­
g r o u p s : /f/ -> / v / as i n calves, knives, wolves; / 0 /
jòj as i n paths, mouths,
oaths, a n d (only i n one example) /s/ -* / z / i n houses.
T h e p r e s e n t - d a y s i t u a t i o n goes b a c k to a n earlier stage of the language where
i n t e r v o c a l i c v o i c i n g t o o k place, w h i c h is o n l y a n o t h e r t e r m for a s s i m i l a t i o n
of voice between vowels.
2) / o n / is a t t a c h e d , either a c c o m p a n i e d b y a change i n the s t e m as i n children,
brethren or w i t h o u t , as i n oxen.
3) n o t h i n g is a t t a c h e d , b u t the p l u r a l is nevertheless c l e a r l y m a r k e d b y a change
i n the s t e m . S u c h a change c a n be represented s y s t e m a t i c a l l y b y i n t r o d u c i n g
the concept of replacive w h i c h has t o be r e g a r d e d as a f u r t h e r a l l o m o r p h of
the p l u r a l m o r p h e m e . G l e a s o n s a y s : " t h e difference of s y l l a b l e nucleus f u n c ­
t i o n s . . . l i k e the suffix. W e m a y consider s u c h a difference i n p h o n e m e s
(they are n o t r e s t r i c t e d to n u c l e i ; consider send : sent) as a special t y p e o f
m o r p h e m i c element called a replacive"
(p. 74). W i t h i n the g r o u p of n o u n s
w h i c h f o r m the p l u r a l b y means of a r e p l a c i v e , i t seems a d v i s a b l e t o
e s t a b l i s h t w o subclasses a c c o r d i n g t o w h e t h e r we h a v e f o r m a t i o n o n a n a t i v e
basis or o n a f o r e i g n b a s i s .
a) o n a n a t i v e basis the p l u r a l c a n be f o r m e d w i t h the replacives / i <-(u)/ as
i n geese, teeth, feet, / a i « - ( a u ) / as i n mice, lice, /e
as i n men a n d
others. Pence a n d dice w o u l d also be best i n c l u d e d h e r e . T h i s subclass is
c o m p l e t e l y closed.
b) o n a foreign basis, a n u m b e r of s t e m final replacives are u s e d , s u c h as
/ i <-(es)/ or / a i «-(as)/ as i n stimuli, cacti, /©/ « - ( a m ) / as i n
desiderata,
dicta, data, / Θ / « - ( a n ) / as i n criteria, phenomena a n d some other r e p l a c i v e s .
W i t h nouns of t h i s subclass, m u c h i d i o l e c t a l a n d s t y l i s t i c v a r i a t i o n
e x i s t s , w h i c h accounts for the f a c t t h a t the class is n o t as c l e a r l y de­
finable as are a l l the other classes of nouns f o r m i n g the p l u r a l w i t h m o r ­
p h o l o g i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d a l l o m o r p h s of {Zj}. A n o t h e r reason w h y these
n o u n s do n o t c o n s t i t u t e a closed class is the p r o d u c t i v i t y of the p a t t e r n
nucleus I nuclei i n scientific a n d t e c h n i c a l language, where n e w l y c o i n e d
words f o r m the p l u r a l o n a n e o - L a t i n basis.
4) there is no m o r p h o l o g i c a l difference between p l u r a l a n d s i n g u l a r , i n o t h e r
w o r d s , the p l u r a l is not m a r k e d b y a n o v e r t m o r p h e m e , as w i t h a l l the o t h e r
nouns. F o r s y s t e m a t i c reasons i t is p r a c t i c a l t o i n t r o d u c e the c o n c e p t of
4
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zero ( 0 ) i n s u c h cases w h i c h is of course a n o t h e r a l l o m o r p h o f {Ζ }.
This
does n o t e x c l u d e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t the category of p l u r a l be m a r k e d
s y n t a c t i c a l l y w h e n the w o r d is n o t used i n i s o l a t i o n . T h u s there is n o r m a l l y
no a m b i g u i t y w h e n words l i k e sheep, grouse, Chinese, Swiss are e m b e d d e d i n
larger s y n t a c t i c u n i t s or i n a s i t u a t i o n a l c o n t e x t . T h i s class is f a i r l y s m a l l
a n d a p r a c t i c a l l y closed one.
2.3.2. W i t h a l l the E n g l i s h n o u n s t r e a t e d u n d e r 2.3.1. the choice of the respec­
t i v e a l l o m o r p h of {Z } is n o t d i c t a t e d b y the p h o n o l o g i c a l shape of the s i n g u l a r .
T h e selection o f t h e a l l o m o r p h is therefore m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d . H i s ­
t o r i c a l reasons c a n be g i v e n for p a r t i c u l a r instances o f s u c h i r r e g u l a r f o r m s .
G e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , the nouns i n t h i s class represent the r e m a i n d e r of older
or foreign systems of p l u r a l - f o r m a t i o n w h i c h are no longer p r o d u c t i v e i n the
E n g l i s h language.
λ
x
2.4.
W e h a v e t r e a t e d i n some d e t a i l the m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d a l l o ­
m o r p h s o f {Zj}, because we w a n t e d t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t s u c h a l l o m o r p h s o f
w h a t e v e r m o r p h e m e c a n be f o r m a l i z e d s y s t e m a t i c a l l y , a n d o n l y occur w i t h
a r e s t r i c t e d (and i n m o s t cases c l e a r l y definable) class of w o r d s . T h e systems
t h e y go b a c k t o are n o t p r o d u c t i v e . F o r b o t h reasons t h e y are therefore no
o b j e c t i o n a g a i n s t c o n s i d e r i n g t h e p h o n o l o g i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d a l l o m o r p h s as t h e
c e n t r a l p a r t i n the s t r u c t u r e of t h e E n g l i s h language. W e s h a l l consequently
confine ourselves to these a l l o m o r p h s w h e n discussing t h e morphemes { Z ,
Z , D
D }.
3.1.
W e s h a l l n o w consider t h e p r i n c i p a l g r a m m a t i c a l m o r p h e m e s of E n g l i s h
j u s t r e f e r r e d t o , a n d t h e i r r e l a t i o n t o each other, w h i c h a m o u n t s t o g i v i n g a n
o u t l i n e o f E n g l i s h m o r p h o l o g y . T h e m o r p h e m e {in} w i l l o n l y be m e n t i o n e d i n
p a s s i n g , as there are no p h o n o l o g i c a l processes i n v o l v e d , a n d i t also differs i n
s e v e r a l respects f r o m {Z
Z%, Z 3 , Ώ D 2 } . F r e e g r a m m a t i c a l m o r p h e m e s w i l l
also n o t be t r e a t e d . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g discussion t w o t e r m s w h i c h h a v e a l r e a d y
been e m p l o y e d o c c a s i o n a l l y w i l l be o f considerable i m p o r t a n c e , v i z . marked
f o r m v s . unmarked f o r m .
3.2.1. T h e m o r p h e m e { Z 2 } serves t o i n d i c a t e t h e g e n i t i v e case w h i c h is there­
fore t h e m a r k e d f o r m i n c o n t r a d i s t i n c t i o n t o the r e m a i n i n g u n m a r k e d f o r m
w h i c h c a n be c a l l e d the c o m m o n case. T h e r e are three p h o n o l o g i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d
allomorphs :
/ i z / after s i b i l a n t s (Rose's, Mr.
Lewis')
/ z / after v o i c e d n o n - s i b i l a n t s (boy's, stone's, men's)
/ s / after voiceless n o n - s i b i l a n t s (cat's, Jack's).
T h e d i s t r i b u t i o n is the s a m e as w i t h the a l l o m o r p h s o f {Zj}, t r e a t e d u n d e r
2.2., i . e. t h e t w o m o r p h e m e s are h o m o n y m o u s . G r a p h e m i c c o n v e n t i o n s (the use
of t h e apostrophe) u s u a l l y hide t h i s f a c t . T h e r e are, h o w e v e r , a few d e v i a t i o n s
w h i c h c a n be described as m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d v a r i a n t s , v i z . 0 is f o u n d
after {Z } i n s t e a d o f / i z / (except for m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d a l l o m o r p h s of
{Z },
as i n men's, women's, children's)
a n d o c c a s i o n a l l y after proper names
2
8
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2
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ν
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e n d i n g i n s i b i l a n t s (James ). T h i s is c e r t a i n l y due t o p h o n o l o g i c a l reasons,though
i t is n o t quite clear w h y the m e t h o d of d i s s i m i l a t i o n i s o n l y used i n c o n s i s t e n t l y
i n some cases / d 3 e i m z i z / or ja^eimzj a n d n o t a t a l l i n o t h e r s : boys' * / b o i z i z / .
3.2.2. T h e m o r p h e m e {Z3} serves to i n d i c a t e the t h i r d person s i n g u l a r of the
present of the v e r b , w h i l e a l l the other f o r m s of the present are u n m a r k e d . I t
is h o m o n y m o u s
w i t h the t w o morphemes used to m a r k s p e c i a l f o r m s of the
E n g l i s h n o u n . C o n s e q u e n t l y , the d i s t r i b u t i o n of the three p h o n o l o g i c a l l y
c o n d i t i o n e d a l l o m o r p h s is the same. W e find:
/ i z / after s i b i l a n t s (he fishes, dozes)
jzj after v o i c e d n o n - s i b i l a n t s (he stones, sees)
/ s / after voiceless n o n - s i b i l a n t s (he cuts, helps).
T h e r e are no m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d a l l o m o r p h s of {Z }, b u t three verbs
(does, has, says) h a v e special a l l o m o r p h s of the s t e m /(ÌA-, hœ-, se-/. H o w e v e r , this
does n o t affect p h o n o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n i n g , as b o t h a l l o m o r p h s of the s t e m i n a l l
three verbs h a v e v o i c e d n o n - s i b i l a n t s before a d d i n g the a l l o m o r p h jzj. I t m i g h t
be a r g u e d t h a t a z e r o - a l l o m o r p h exists i n a u x i l i a r y verbs. W e prefer n o t to
follow t h i s line of a r g u m e n t , a n d regard t h i s class as a h i g h l y specialized closed
subclass of v e r b s . B u t we do n o t go as far as G l e a s o n (p. 104) i n t r e a t i n g t h e m as
a n altogether separate class of verbal auxiliaries, o n l y associated w i t h verbs.
13
3
14
3.2.3. T h e m o r p h e m e {Τ> } serves to i n d i c a t e p a s t tense i n the E n g l i s h v e r b .
I n t h e p a s t , a l l forms o f the v e r b are so m a r k e d , b u t person a n d n u m b e r r e m a i n
u n m a r k e d categories t h r o u g h o u t . A g a i n we find three p h o n o l o g i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d
allomorphs :
/ i d / after a l v e o l a r stops (ended, rested)
/ d / after v o i c e d n o n - a l v e o l a r stops (stoned, tried, managed)
/ t / after voiceless n o n - a l v e o l a r stops (fished, helped).
These a l l o m o r p h s occur i n a l l r e g u l a r E n g l i s h verbs w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e a n open
class. Besides, there are a n u m b e r o f m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d a l l o m o r p h s *
— n o t a b l y replacives of v a r i o u s k i n d s , b u t also 0 — w i t h i r r e g u l a r (strong)
v e r b s w hich f o r m a closed class.
3.2.4. T h e m o r p h e m e { D } serves to i n d i c a t e the past p a r t i c i p l e i n E n g l i s h .
T h i s difference i n the 'signifié' f r o m { D j } m u s t i n d u c e us t o consider i t as a
separate m o r p h e m e , t h o u g h i n m o s t cases the t w o morphemes are h o m o n y m o u s .
T h e c r i t e r i o n G l e a s o n uses t h a t " t h e t w o forms. . . i n a few verbs . . . are
different, a n d so m u s t be considered as t w o m o r p h e m e s " (p. 101) is n o t sufficient.
W i t h p h o n o l o g i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d a l l o m o r p h s the d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d t h e e x a m p l e s
are e x a c t l y the same as those g i v e n for {Ό } i n 3.2.3. T h e r e are three t y p e s of
m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d a l l o m o r p h s : replacives (sung), 0 (cut), a n d m o s t
c o n s p i c u o u s l y / o n / (taken) w h i c h accounts for the use of the s y m b o l -en i n t r a n s ­
f o r m a t i o n a l n o t a t i o n s . A s i n m o s t languages, the v e r b to be has a n u m b e r o f
irregular s u p p l e t i v e f o r m s whose p r e s e r v a t i o n i s , of course, due t o i t s e x t r e m e l y
h i g h frequency. T h e use of a z e r o - a l l o m o r p h of { D } a n d { D } w i t h some v e r b s
e n d i n g i n a n alveolar stop (cut. hit, put) is a g a i n c e r t a i n l y t i e d u p w i t h p h o n o l o g τ
1 5
1
1 7
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2
τ
1 8
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ical reasons, a n d e x a c t l y parallels the z e r o - a l l o m o r p h of {Z } f o u n d after {Z )
(boys') discussed i n 3.2.1. N o t h i n g w o u l d h a v e p r e v e n t e d the use of d i s s i m i l a t i o n
(*cutted). A l l four cases of z e r o - a l l o m o r p h s w i t h {Z
Z , D D } c a n be i n t e r ­
preted as instances of complete a s s i m i l a t i o n of the f o l l o w i n g s i b i l a n t or a l v e o l a r
stop, c o m p a r a b l e t o illegal, irrelevant discussed i n 7 . 1 . 0 w o u l d t h e n be the
result of a s s i m i l a t i o n .
4.1.
I f we t r y t o s u m u p t h i s short s u r v e y of E n g l i s h m o r p h o l o g y , we observe
that there is a n o b v i o u s difference between the forms of the n o u n a n d those of
the v e r b . T h e m o r p h o l o g y of the v e r b is f a r more c o m p l e x , w h i l e there is n o t
much variety i n n o m i n a l forms.
4.2.
A p a r t f r o m the u n m a r k e d base f o r m , the n o u n has o n l y t w o m a r k e d
categories: p l u r a l a n d g e n i t i v e . T h e p h o n o l o g i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d a l l o m o r p h s of
{ Zj} a n d {Z } are e x a c t l y a l i k e , i . e. the respective forms are h o m o n y m o u s . O n l y
a s m a l l percentage of forms d o n o t fit i n t o t h i s s y s t e m , as t h e y m a k e use of
m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d a l l o m o r p h s . S u c h nouns c o n s t i t u t e a closed class.
4.3.
T h e E n g l i s h v e r b , o n the c o n t r a r y , has a m u c h w i d e r range of different
forms. I n a d d i t i o n t o a s i b i l a n t m o r p h e m e {Z }, a n u m b e r of others can be
affixed, v i z . { D D , i n ) . W e c a n i l l u s t r a t e the s i t u a t i o n w i t h the help of a
matrix :
x
2
lt
2
1 ?
2
1 9
2
3
1 ?
2
2 0
T h e regular E n g l i s h v e r b has
o n l y 4 forms :
T h e irregular
v e r b has no more
t h a n 5 forms:
T h e v e r b to be has 8 forms:
be,
call,
calls,
called,
—,
calling
sing,
take,
hit,
sings,
takes,
hits,
sang,
took,
—,
sung,
taken,
singingtaking
hitting
am,
is,
are,
was,
were
been,
being
{Z }
{Di}
{D }
{ig}
8
2
M o r p h e m e s w h i c h m a r k c e r t a i n v e r b forms need n o t necessarily be affixes t h a t
are t a c k e d o n t o t h e v e r b . T h e same f u n c t i o n c a n be a c h i e v e d w i t h the help of
free g r a m m a t i c a l m o r p h e m e s l i k e to w h i c h m a r k s the i n f i n i t i v e i n E n g l i s h . A s
p o i n t e d o u t r e c e n t l y b y S t r a n g the m o d e l most a p p r o p r i a t e to describe the
E n g l i s h v e r b s y s t e m w o u l d be a r a d i a l one, w i t h the u n m a r k e d t e r m i n the
centre, s u r r o u n d e d b y i n c r e a s i n g l y m a r k e d forms.
5.1.
W e s h a l l n o w proceed t o a t t e m p t a n e x p l a n a t i o n of the d e s c r i p t i v e
p r e s e n t a t i o n g i v e n a b o v e , c o n c e r n i n g the p r i n c i p a l facts of E n g l i s h m o r p h o l o g y .
W e h a v e stressed t h r o u g h o u t the i m p o r t a n c e of p h o n o l o g i c a l considerations,
a n d h a v e r e p e a t e d l y h i n t e d at possible influences. A c o m p a r i s o n o f {Z , Z , Z }
o n t h e one h a n d , a n d { D
D } o n t h e o t h e r , w i l l offer a s o l u t i o n to the d i s t r i ­
b u t i o n of t h e p h o n o l o g i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d a l l o m o r p h s . T h o u g h a p u r e l y m e c h a n ­
i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n is c o n t r a d i c t e d b y the s i t u a t i o n discussed i n 3.2.4. a n d 3.2.1..
the g u i d i n g p r i n c i p l e seems r a t h e r obvious i n our o p i n i o n .
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1
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5.2.
I t is e v i d e n t t h a t the c o n d i t i o n i n g f a c t o r for the g r o u p of h o m o n y m o u s
morphemes { Z Z 2 , Z3} is the q u e s t i o n of the presence of s i b i l a n t s , a n d also t h a t
the three p h o n o l o g i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d a l l o m o r p h s a l l c o n t a i n s i b i l a n t s t h e m ­
selves. W e c a n therefore c a l l t h e m sibilant-morphemes.
O n the other h a n d , the
decisive c r i t e r i o n for the d i s t r i b u t i o n of the v a r i a n t s of { D , D 2 } is o b v i o u s l y
the presence or absence of a l v e o l a r stops, a n d the three a l l o m o r p h s / i d , d , t / a l l
c o n t a i n s u c h stops. T h e g r o u p c a n therefore be t e r m e d
alveolar-stop-mor­
phemes. W h e n a s i b i l a n t - m o r p h e m e is a t t a c h e d t o a s t e m n o t e n d i n g i n a s i b i l a n t ,
the choice between t h e v o i c e d jzj or voiceless / s / a l l o m o r p h is s i m p l y r e g u l a t e d
b y the n a t u r e o f t h e p r e c e d i n g phoneme. I f i t is v o i c e d , t h e f o l l o w i n g a l l o m o r p h
becomes v o i c e d , i f i t is voiceless, the a l l o m o r p h too becomes voiceless. T h i s is
s i m p l y a d e s c r i p t i o n o f progressive a s s i m i l a t i o n . E x a c t l y the same holds for the
selection o f jdj or / t / i n the case of {O
D 2 } , w h e n there is n o a l v e o l a r stop
preceding. A g a i n , progressive a s s i m i l a t i o n is the r e g u l a t i n g f a c t o r . T h e s i t u a t i o n
is c o m p l e t e l y c h a n g e d w h e n a s i b i l a n t or a n a l v e o l a r stop d i r e c t l y precedes the
respective m o r p h e m e . I f jzj or / s / a n d jdj or jtj were a t t a c h e d t o the s t e m , t w o
phonemes of the same k i n d w o u l d clash w h i c h w o u l d y i e l d p h o n e m e clusters
n o t e x i s t i n g i n E n g l i s h . T o p r e v e n t t h i s , a v o w e l jij is i n s e r t e d w h i c h a m o u n t s
t o s a y i n g t h a t we h a v e d i s s i m i l a t i o n i n these cases. A f t e r t h e v o w e l / i / , t h e
v o i c e d v a r i a n t of t h e s i b i l a n t m o r p h e m e is selected. W i t h t h e p h o n o l o g i c a l l y
c o n d i t i o n e d a l l o m o r p h s of the five morphemes i n q u e s t i o n , the process i n v a r i a b l y
w o r k s i n the w a y described. T h e k i n d of l e x i c a l m o r p h e m e s i n v o l v e d , m o r e
precisely t h e word-class t h e y belong t o , is u t t e r l y i r r e l e v a n t for t h e f u n c t i o n i n g
of t h i s process. I t cuts across the otherwise f u n d a m e n t a l d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n
nouns a n d v e r b s , a n d {Z Z 2 } behave e x a c t l y l i k e {Z3}. T h i s is p r o b a b l y t h e
reason, w h y the g o v e r n i n g p r i n c i p l e s h o u l d h a v e escaped t h e a t t e n t i o n of
scholars, as t h e y t r a d i t i o n a l l y t r e a t n o u n phrases a n d v e r b phrases u n d e r
different headings. M o r e o v e r , {D
D 2 } also behave l i k e the p h o n e t i c a l l y v e r y
dissimilar sibilant-morphemes.
1?
x
lf
23
v
v
5.3.
A s s i m i l a t i o n a n d d i s s i m i l a t i o n h a v e to be considered as r e g u l a t i n g
factors i n E n g l i s h m o r p h o l o g y , w h i c h e x p l a i n s the s y s t e m o f t h e l a n g u a g e , b u t
we are f a r f r o m a s s u m i n g a p u r e l y m e c h a n i s t i c a t t i t u d e . S u c h a n a p p r o a c h
w o u l d a l r e a d y encounter considerable difficulties i n e x p l a i n i n g w h y we find
progressive a s s i m i l a t i o n i n one case, b u t regressive a s s i m i l a t i o n i n a n o t h e r . W e
h a v e p o i n t e d o u t i n 3.2.4. a n d 3.2.1. t h a t d i s s i m i l a t i o n is n o t a t w o r k i n s o m e
cases where we m i g h t h a v e e x p e c t e d i t . A s m e n t i o n e d i n 3.2.2., {Z3} is n o t
f o u n d i n a u x i l i a r y v e r b s . T h u s , person a n d n u m b e r are n o t m a r k e d i n t h e
present, as i t u s u a l l y is n o t t h r o u g h o u t the past o f a l l v e r b s . A m b i g u i t i e s
h o w e v e r , do n o t n o r m a l l y arise t h r o u g h t h i s f a c t , or are d i s c a r d e d b y o t h e r
m a r k e r s i n larger s y n t a c t i c u n i t s .
6.1.
T h e d e s c r i p t i o n of the f u n c t i o n i n g of a s s i m i l a t i o n a n d d i s s i m i l a t i o n i n
E n g l i s h m o r p h o l o g y has t o be s u p p l e m e n t e d b y a f u r t h e r g o i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .
O n a higher l e v e l of a b s t r a c t i o n , n o t a l l three a l l o m o r p h s / i z , z, s/ a n d / i d , d , t /
2 4
Assimilation
and Dissimilation
as Regulating
Factors
165
are e q u a l l y p h o n o l o g i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d . I f we t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t w h a t H o c k e t t
(p. 282) calls " t h e p h o n e m i c h a b i t s o f t h e l a n g u a g e " — w h i c h is n o t h i n g else b u t
the i n h e r e n t p h o n e m i c s y s t e m o f E n g l i s h , or t h e l a w s for the c l u s t e r i n g a n d p a t ­
t e r n i n g o f sounds v a l i d i n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r language — t h e n we h a v e t o a t t r i b u t e
a s p e c i a l s t a t u s t o a l l o m o r p h s f o l l o w i n g v o w e l s , a n d c e r t a i n consonants.
6.2.1.
V o w e l s do n o t necessarily r e q u i r e a f o l l o w i n g phoneme to become v o i c e d
(e. g. boys jzj v s . voice /s/), a n d so n o t h i n g i n t h e p h o n e m i c s y s t e m of E n g l i s h
w o u l d p r e v e n t t h e choice of t h e voiceless v a r i a n t of {Z , Z , O
x
2
lt
D } i n s t e a d of t h e
2
v o i c e d one. T h e selection o f t h e v o i c e d v a r i a n t s jzj a n d jdj (also i n / i z / a n d / i d / )
i s t h u s n o t c o n d i t i o n e d b y p u r e l y p h o n o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s , b u t is p a r t l y m o r p h o ­
l o g i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d . H o w e v e r , E n g l i s h m o r p h o l o g y is c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y the f a c t
t h a t t h e choice of the v o i c e d v a r i a n t , as d e s c r i b e d i n 2.2. a n d t h r o u g h o u t 3. is
a u t o m a t i c a n d r e g u l a r . A s s i m i l a t i o n a c c o r d i n g t o the m a n n e r of a r t i c u l a t i o n is
therefore a g u i d i n g p r i n c i p l e i n E n g l i s h m o r p h o l o g y , a n d has t o be r e g a r d e d as
a r e g u l a t i n g f a c t o r , e s p e c i a l l y since i n t h e case of a l l o m o r p h s f o l l o w i n g vowels,
a n o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t y w o u l d e x i s t o n t h e h i g h e r p l a n e of t h e i n h e r e n t p h o n e m i c
laws of E n g l i s h . T h e s i t u a t i o n j u s t d e s c r i b e d also accounts for p a i r s l i k e wife's/
wives. T h e s i b i l a n t f o l l o w i n g t h e f r i c a t i v e is a s s i m i l a t e d a c c o r d i n g l y .
6.2.2.
W h a t has been s a i d a b o u t vowels also holds for some v o i c e d conso­
n a n t s i n final p o s i t i o n . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e p h o n e m i c s y s t e m of E n g l i s h , c o m b i ­
n a t i o n s o f ' v o i c e d c o n s o n a n t + voiceless c o n s o n a n t ' are c e r t a i n l y possible i n
final p o s i t i o n , a n d s u c h clusters c o m m o n l y occur (e. g. / m p , l p , n t , It, l k , mf, If,
ns, Is/).
25
H o w e v e r , a l l clusters o f t h i s k i n d c o n t a i n e i t h e r a n a s a l or a l i q u i d ,
w h i c h b o t h h a v e s t r o n g s y l l a b i c c h a r a c t e r , a n d c a n f u n c t i o n as s y l l a b l e n u c l e i .
T h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c feature b r i n g s t h e m i n t o close n e i g h b o u r h o o d w i t h v o w e l s ,
w h i c h e x p l a i n s t h e s i m i l a r p h o n o l o g i c a l b e h a v i o u r . T h e r e seems t o be
one
e x c e p t i o n , where n o n a s a l or l i q u i d is i n v o l v e d i n t h e sequence ' v o i c e d conso­
n a n t + voiceless c o n s o n a n t ' , v i z . t h e
thousandths).
final
cluster jdGj,
as i n width,
breadthj
T h i s i s , h o w e v e r , a n altogether different case, as \Θ\ is a d e r i v a t i v e
lexical morpheme
2 6
(cf. 7.3.1.), a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y a m o r p h e m e b o u n d a r y between
jdj a n d / Θ / exists. T h e o t h e r c o n s o n a n t clusters, m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , are f o u n d i n
m o n o m o r p h e m i c w o r d s . T h e s i t u a t i o n is c o m p l e t e y c h a n g e d , w h e n a g r a m m a t i ­
c a l m o r p h e m e is a t t a c h e d to a s t e m e n d i n g i n a v o i c e d c o n s o n a n t . T h e n , a s s i m i ­
l a t i o n r e g u l a r l y a n d a u t o m a t i c a l l y t a k e s place — e x a c t l y as w h e n a v o w e l p r e ­
cedes, as discussed i n 6.2.1. — a n d jzj or jdj is a d d e d , a l t h o u g h i n t h e i n h e r e n t
p h o n e m i c s y s t e m of E n g l i s h the voiceless a l l o m o r p h w o u l d also be possible.
6.2.3.
final
cluster
'voiceless c o n s o n a n t + v o i c e d c o n s o n a n t ' is also possible i n E n g l i s h .
T h e reverse of the sequence discussed i n 6.2.2., v i z . t h e
Again,
s u c h cases are r e s t r i c t e d t o c o m b i n a t i o n s w h i c h c o n t a i n a n a s a l or a l i q u i d , as i n
hasten, fasten, reckon, whistle,
hustle, tackle, trample
( a n d w i t h some A m e r i c a n
s p e a k e r s also w i t h t h e l i q u i d / r / , as i n tanker, hatter), where t h e nasals a n d
l i q u i d s a l w a y s c l e a r l y h a v e s y l l a b i c q u a l i t y , a n d t h u s s t r o n g l y resemble v o w e l s .
T h i s v o w e l - l i k e q u a l i t y , w h i c h was also e v i d e n t i n w h a t has been said i n 6.2.2.,
Leonhard
166
Lipka
p u t s the cluster ' n a s a l / l i q u i d + voiceless c o n s o n a n t ' , as w e l l as the reverse, on
the same plane w i t h sequences c o n t a i n i n g a v o w e l , as discussed i n 6.2.1. I n a l l
those cases, the choice between voiceless or v o i c e d consonants is i n p r i n c i p l e
open, on the l e v e l of the p h o n e m i c s y s t e m of E n g l i s h . H o w e v e r , o n t h e level
of m o r p h o l o g y , w h e n a g r a m m a t i c a l m o r p h e m e is a t t a c h e d , a s s i m i l a t i o n is
a l w a y s at w o r k . T h e choice of the voiceless a l l o m o r p h s /s, t / after voiceless
consonants is t h u s a g a i n n o t c o n d i t i o n e d b y p u r e l y p h o n o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s , but
basically r e g u l a t e d b y t h e h a b i t s of E n g l i s h m o r p h o l o g y .
6.3.
T h e s i t u a t i o n is f u n d a m e n t a l l y different w h e n i t comes t o some other
final consonant clusters. H e r e , the d i s t r i b u t i o n of p h o n e m e s i n the E n g l i s h
language does n o t p e r m i t c e r t a i n sequences w h i c h m a y w e l l occur i n other
l a n g u a g e s . T h e p h o n e m i c a l l y impossible sequences i n q u e s t i o n are ' s i b i l a n t
+ s i b i l a n t ' a n d ' a l v e o l a r stop + alveolar s t o p ' . These consonant clusters are
c o n t r a r y to the p h o n e m i c p a t t e r n of E n g l i s h . I f a c o m b i n a t i o n of t w o m o r ­
phemes w o u l d y i e l d s u c h a n a r r a n g e m e n t o f phonemes, t h e l a n g u a g e has
recourse t o the procedure of d i s s i m i l a t i o n w h i c h is a l w a y s c o m p u l s o r y . A clash
of t w o such phonemes of the same k i n d , w h i c h is i m p o s s i b l e i n t h e p h o n e m i c
s y s t e m of the E n g l i s h language, is t h e r e b y a v o i d e d . D i s s i m i l a t i o n is therefore
i n h e r e n t l y p h o n o l o g i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d , e v e n o n t h e highest l e v e l of a b s t r a c t i o n ,
a n d is deeply r o o t e d i n t h e language, w h i c h does n o t m e a n t h a t t h e p h o n e m i c
s y s t e m i t s e l f were n o t l i a b l e t o change, or has n o t been s u b j e c t e d to change i n
the h i s t o r y of the language. A l l t h i s e x p l a i n s w h y / i z / has t o be selected after
s i b i l a n t s , w h e n a n o v e r t a l l o m o r p h of { Z Z , Z } is a t t a c h e d t o a s t e m , a n d we
do n o t h a v e 0 .
E x a c t l y t h e same holds for / i d / f o u n d after a l v e o l a r stops, w h e n
a n a l l o m o r p h of { D D } is a d d e d . D i s s i m i l a t i o n w i t h {Z Z , Z , O D } is t h u s
i n h e r e n t l y t i e d u p w i t h the n a t u r e of the respective h o m o n y m o u s m o r p h e m e s —
either s i b i l a n t or a l v e o l a r stop — a n d is firmly r o o t e d i n the p h o n e m i c s y s t e m
of E n g l i s h .
27
1}
2
3
2 8
l 5
ly
2
2
3
l9
2
7.1.
A short l o o k at regressive a s s i m i l a t i o n , as i t occurs w i t h l e x i c a l m o r ­
phemes, m a y perhaps n o t seem out of place here. G l e a s o n (p. 83) gives t h e
examples intemperate,
imperfect, incalitrant w i t h the prefix in- as base f o r m
(which is also e t y m o l o g i c a l l y the base) for the a s s i m i l a t e d a l l o m o r p h s / i m / a n d
/ i n / . W e can a d d some more e x a m p l e s t o g i v e a complete l i s t of p h o n o l o g i c a l l y
c o n d i t i o n e d a l l o m o r p h s of t h i s m o r p h e m e : / i n / as i n independent, intolerant, / i m /
as i n impossible,
impersonal,
/ i n / as i n incapable, incorrect, / i l / as i n
illegal,
illogical, / i r / as i n irrelevant,
irreverent. I f we w a n t to f o l l o w G l e a s o n i n r e g a r d ­
i n g / i n / as the base of the l e x i c a l m o r p h e m e , we m u s t bear i n m i n d t h a t i t is
i t s e l f a n a s s i m i l a t e d f o r m , c o n t a i n i n g a n a l v e o l a r s o u n d , l i k e the f o l l o w i n g / d /
or / t / . T h i s t i m e i t r e a l l y does n o t m a t t e r w h i c h of the a l l o m o r p h s is t a k e n as
the base, as t h e y are p r i n c i p a l l y a l l o n a n e q u a l f o o t i n g , i . e. t h e y are a l l p u r e l y
p h o n o l o g i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d , b y the w o r k i n g o f a s s i m i l a t i o n .
29
29
3 0
7.2.
T h e r e is also a m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d a l l o m o r p h / A n / of the m o r ­
pheme discussed i n 7.1.. or perhaps we c a n r e g a r d the choice between / A I I / a n d
Assimilation
and Dissimilation
as -Regulating
Factors
167
the p h o n o l o g i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d selection between / i n , i n i , ir), i l , i r / as being
m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d . T h u s we find uncertainty
b u t incertitude,
unable
b u t inability (both are v o c a l i c , t h o u g h one is a d i p h t h o n g , t h e other a vowel).
C o m p a r e d t o the g r a m m a t i c a l morphemes { Z Z , Z , Ώ D } described a b o v e ,
there is one i m p o r t a n t difference i n the d i s t r i b u t i o n of the a l l o m o r p h s of the
l e x i c a l m o r p h e m e j u s t u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n : we h a v e to t a k e i n t o account the
c r i t e r i o n of p r o d u c t i v i t y , as a l w a y s i n w o r d - f o r m a t i o n . W i t h the g r a m m a t i c a l
m o r p h e m e s m e n t i o n e d , t h e choice between the p h o n o l o g i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d
a l l o m o r p h s was a l w a y s f o u n d to be a l i v i n g p a t t e r n . N o u n s a n d verbs connect­
e d w i t h m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d a l l o m o r p h s , however, were f o u n d t o
f o r m a closed class. H e r e we see a different s i t u a t i o n altogether. T h e p h o n o ­
l o g i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d a l l o m o r p h s are no longer r e a l l y p r o d u c t i v e , b u t un- is a
l i v i n g p a t t e r n , t h o u g h there are c e r t a i n r e s t r i c t i o n s . In- forms c o m b i n a t i o n s
o n l y o n a f o r e i g n basis ( L a t i n a n d F r e n c h ) . Some l i n g u i s t s do n o t a p p r o v e o f
c a l l i n g m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d v a r i a n t s l i k e un- or -en (in oxen or taken)
a l l o m o r p h s , as t h e y are n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y s i m i l a r i n p h o n i c shape t o the other
v a r i a n t s , b u t prefer t o c a l l t h e m ' a l t e r n a n t s ' . T h i s , h o w e v e r , is p a r t l y a s i m p l e
m a t t e r o f t e r m i n o l o g y , t h o u g h i t also entails considerable d i s a d v a n t a g e s for
sy s t e m a t i z a t i o n .
1?
2
1}
3
2
81
7.3.1. T h e r e is a n o t h e r i n t e r e s t i n g p h e n o m e n o n w h i c h shows t h a t g r a m m a t i ­
c a l m o r p h e m e s differ f r o m l e x i c a l ones i n the p h o n o l o g i c a l b e h a v i o u r of t h e i r
e n v i r o n m e n t . W h e n a l e x i c a l m o r p h e m e l i k e / i / / is a t t a c h e d t o a s t e m l i k e
long, n o changes i n either m o r p h e m e are i n v o l v e d , a n d we get / I o n i / / . I n other
w o r d s , the m o r p h e m e b o u n d a r y is m a i n t a i n e d , as i t is w i t h separate m o r ­
phemes. H o w e v e r , w h e n a g r a m m a t i c a l m o r p h e m e l i k e -er (either /o/ or /or/) —
u s e d t o m a r k a degree of c o m p a r i s o n — is a t t a c h e d , the phoneme / g / is i n s e r t e d
r e s u l t i n g i n [longo] or [longer]. T h u s , the m o r p h e m e b o u n d a r y is n o t m a i n ­
t a i n e d , a n d t h e w h o l e c o m b i n a t i o n behaves l i k e a m o n o m o r p h e m i c w o r d , e. g.
finger [fingo] or [finger]. A h o m o n y m o u s , b u t l e x i c a l , m o r p h e m e -er — w h i c h
d e r i v e s agent n o u n s f r o m v e r b s — o n the c o n t r a r y , c l e a r l y shows the m o r p h e m e
b o u n d a r y ; so we h a v e singer [sino] or [sinor].
3 2
7.3.2. T h e s i t u a t i o n described i n 7.3.1. c a n n o t be a c c o u n t e d for b y either
a s s i m i l a t i o n or d i s s i m i l a t i o n . I n f a c t , there is n o p h o n o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n i n g a t a l l ,
b u t r a t h e r a v e r y special case of a m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d selection between
c o n c o m i t a n t p h o n o l o g i c a l features. N e i t h e r of the t w o m o r p h e m e s i n q u e s t i o n
(base or affix) is affected. T h e case of the t w o h o m o n y m o u s morphemes -er —·
w h i c h o n l y differ i n the p o i n t t h a t one is g r a m m a t i c a l , t h e other l e x i c a l —
seems t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h i s v e r y c o n c l u s i v e l y .
7.3.3. A clear case of d i s s i m i l a t i o n , o n the other h a n d , is t o be f o u n d i n the
c h o i c e b e t w e e n the t w o a l l o m o r p h s o f a free g r a m m a t i c a l m o r p h e m e , preceding
a l e x i c a l m o r p h e m e , v i z . the selection between the t w o v a r i a n t s of the a r t i c l e a
a n d an w h i c h is d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e n a t u r e o f the f o l l o w i n g phoneme. Before
v o w e l s , a n a s a l is i n s e r t e d .
Leonhard
168
Lipka
8.
I n c o n c l u s i o n , we s h o u l d l i k e t o m a k e i t clear t h a t t h e concepts of
a s s i m i l a t i o n a n d d i s s i m i l a t i o n , as used t h r o u g h o u t t h i s a r t i c l e , are n o t t o be
u n d e r s t o o d i n a h i s t o r i c a l sense. T h e y r a t h e r h a v e t o be accepted as b a s i c a l l y
s y n c h r o n i c t e r m s , i n t h e w a y o f d y n a m i c processes, c o m p a r a b l e t o generative
g r a m m a r . ' G e n e r a t e ' i n c o n t e m p o r a r y l i n g u i s t i c s has n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h 'produce
s o m e t h i n g ' as a h i s t o r i c a l event, b u t signifies t h a t a finite s y n c h r o n i c s y s t e m
of rules c a n b r i n g f o r t h t h e i n f i n i t e v a r i e t y o f u t t e r a n c e s i n a n a t u r a l language.
T o establish t h e h i s t o r i c a l p r i o r i t y o f p a r t i c u l a r f o r m s w h i c h t h e n assimilate
other f o r m s , o r are themselves a s s i m i l a t e d , m a y be a v e r y r e w a r d i n g subject
for d i a c h r o n i c l i n g u i s t i c s . W e were n o t , h o w e v e r , c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h i s q u e s t i o n
i n o u r discussion o f E n g l i s h m o r p h o l o g y . I t is a n a l t o g e t h e r different p r o b l e m ;
e x a c t l y as i n w o r d - f o r m a t i o n , where i t i s f u l l y l e g i t i m a t e t o p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e
v e r b to peddle is h i s t o r i c a l l y d e r i v e d f r o m t h e earlier a t t e s t e d n o u n pedlar, b u t
where, s y n c h r o n i c a l l y s p e a k i n g , a pedlar is 'someone w h o p e d d l e s ' , i . e. t h e n o u n
is d e r i v e d f r o m t h e v e r b . W i t h t h e g r a m m a t i c a l m o r p h e m e s discussed, o n l y
the p h o n o l o g i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d a l l o m o r p h s are p r o d u c t i v e , whereas t h e n o u n s
a n d verbs w i t h m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d v a r i a n t s c o n s t i t u t e closed class­
es. A s we h a v e seen i n 7.2. t h i s is n o t necessarily t h e case w i t h l e x i c a l m o r ­
phemes.
9.1.
A s y n o p t i c a l d i a g r a m m a y perhaps c o n t r i b u t e t o t h r o w l i g h t u p o n
the process o f selecting the a p p r o p r i a t e a l l o m o r p h s . T h e first c o n d i t i o n i n g f a c t o r
is t h e choice between m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y (1) a n d p h o n o l o g i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d (2)
a l l o m o r p h s . I n t h e first case, f u r t h e r b r a n c h i n g off is e x c l u s i v e l y d i c t a t e d b y t h e
specific l e x i c a l m o r p h e m e s , a n d c a n therefore n o t be p r e d i c t e d . I n t h e second
case, a decision a c c o r d i n g t o t h e presence o f e i t h e r s i b i l a n t s a n d a l v e o l a r
stops or n o n - s i b i l a n t s a n d n o n - a l v e o l a r stops h a s t o be m a d e . T h i s f a c t o r is
a u t o m a t i c a l l y connected w i t h t h e respective processes i n v o l v e d , either d i s s i m i ­
l a t i o n or a s s i m i l a t i o n . F i n a l l y , t h e m a n n e r o f a s s i m i l a t i o n is regulated b y t h e
f a c t o r : v o i c e d o r voiceless.
9.2.
T w o groups o f a l l o m o r p h s w h i c h are p r i m a r i l y p h o n o l o g i c a l l y c o n d i ­
t i o n e d (or c a n a t least be so explained) are also m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d , b u t
o n a higher l e v e l . W e h a v e therefore m a r k e d t h i s b y t h e s u b s c r i p t , to d i s t i n g u i s h
them from the morphologically conditioned! group, a n d have derived them f r o m
the r i g h t h a n d side o f t h e d i a g r a m . X
is t h e open class o f t e c h n i c a l n o u n s ,
f o r m i n g t h e p l u r a l o n a n e o - L a t i n basis, w h i c h is r e s t r i c t e d t o stem e n d i n g i n
/as/. T h e second g r o u p consists o f verbs a n d n o u n s (also p e r s o n a l names) e n d i n g
i n a s i b i l a n t or a l v e o l a r stop, either i n t h e s t e m (hit, grouse, James') or after a n
affixed a l l o m o r p h o f {Z } (boys'). T h e y a l l have a z e r o - a l l o m o r p h w h i c h c a n be
assumed t o be t h e r e s u l t o f complete a s s i m i l a t i o n . W e m i g h t also s i m p l y i n c l u d e
t h e m u n d e r t h e h e a d i n g sheep. W e w o u l d n o t , t h e n , be t a k i n g i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n
t h e p h o n o l o g i c a l influences w h i c h definitely exist. T h e s y m b o l s a t the b o t t o m
of the d i a g r a m i n d i c a t e t h e morphemes w i t h w h i c h t h e respective a l l o m o r p h s a r e
found.
3 3
2
o
2
s
NOUN/VERB
Leonhard
170
Lipka
10.
T h e m o r p h o l o g i c a l a n d p h o n o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s e x i s t i n g i n Enguah
m o r p h o l o g y , a n d t h e v a r i o n s processes i n v o l v e d , m a y also be f o r m u l a t e d b y means
of the f o l l o w i n g m o r p h o p h o n e m i c rules :
3 4
(1) X + g m o r
/Alm I
->
Stemaiν + | ^
said, sold
felt, k e p t
calves, m e n ' s , does, says
houses
children, hidden
oxen, taken
feet, s a n g , s u n g
sheep
J
(2) X + Al„
(3) X + Alph
{l:
(4) Xas + Alph
Xas + / i , a i « - (as)/ n u c l e i , s t i m u l i
)+Aiph
(5) X n + Alph
[Xsibl]
^Xsib [ + 0
IXalvlJ
Xsib/alv + Alph
(6) X j + Alph
(7) X a „ / .
(8) X
2
l v
2
+ Alph -
+ Al
p h
-
(») Avoiced + Alph -
+ M
1
2
3
1
5
boxes, fishes, R o s e ' s , dozes
e n d e d , rested
J
1 + Al
A. voiceless J
J /z/i
Xvoiced + | |
(10) X voiceless + Alp,, - X voiceless
grouse, Swiss, J a m e s '
boys', kings'
cut, hit
/ d /
b o y s , stone's, sees
s
t
o
n
e
d
)
t r i e d
m
a
n
a
g
e
d
cats, J a c k ' s , helps
fished, helped
H . A . Gleason, An Introduction to Descriptive Linguistics
r e v . e d . (New Y o r k , etc.
1961), p. 62.
W e here drop the unnecessary h y p h e n i n Gleason's notation {—Z } — also w i t h
other morpheme symbols — which is redundant, as there is no doubt about the
place where the morphemes are added.
Cf. B a r b a r a M . H . S t r a n g . Modern English Structure ( L o n d o n , 1962). p. 77 a n d
p p . 89f.
Cf. the list in Strang, p p . 87—89.
T h e concept of ' n o r m ' (norma) vs. 'system' (sistema) has been introduced by
E u g e n i o Coseriu, ''Sistema, n o r m a y h a b l a " , i n : Teoria del lenguaje y linguistica
general, p p . 11—113, where the irregular E n g l i s h plural oxen is given as a n example
y
x
Assimilation
β
7
8
9
10
1 1
1 2
1 3
14
1 5
1 6
1 7
1 8
1 9
2 0
2 1
2 2
and Dissimilation
as Regulating
Factors
171
of the ' n o r m ' in the morphological field (p. 76). T h e clearest evidence is the 'errores
dc flexion.' (p. 76) which are found i n children's language. O f course, all morpho­
logically conditioned variants in a language belong here.
Cf. the v e r y similar presentation i n Gleason. p p . 98f.
This distinction is even more important a n d useful in word-formation, where we
have to separate clearly between coinings o n a native basis, a n d on a foreign basis.
Cf. H a n s M a r c h a n d , The Categories and Types of Present-Day English
WordFormation (Wiesbaden, 1960), p p . 162f., i n the following quoted as Gat.
T h o u g h dice might be explained as formed b y a d d i n g the morphologically con­
ditioned a l l o m o r p h / s / . Also pence, w i t h a n a d d i t i o n a l a l l o m o r p h of the stem / p e n / .
Seraphim, cherubim could be said to fall under this heading, b u t might be described
as a d d i n g a n a l l o m o r p h / i m / w h i c h is the regular p l u r a l morpheme for masculine
nouns i n H e b r e w . Cf. W . Gesenius, Hebräische Grammatik (ο. E . Rodiger), 21.
A u f l . (Leipzig, 1872), §§ 87f., 108.
Cf. S t r a n g , p p . 88f.
Cf. S t r a n g , p. 64 a n d p p . 82f.
Cf. S t r a n g , p. 92, a n d Gleason, p. 100.
Cf. S t r a n g , p. 127. T h e r e is still another morpheme, homonymous w i t h {Z Z , Z },
viz. the phonetically reduced variant o f the lexical morpheme is. Charles F . H o c k ett, A Course in Modern Linguistics (New Y o r k , 1958). p. 279, gives the following
examples for the three allomorphs / i z , z, s/: Rose's going, John's going, Jack's
going.
O n the grounds of morphological (defective {Z }, infinitive, participles ; suppletives
in the past) a n d syntactic properties (position a n d periphrastic uses).
Cf. S t r a n g , p. 129, a n d Gleason, p. 101.
See the list i n Gleason, p p . 102f.
Cf. 2.3.1.
T h o u g h the form been is regular, if compared to the infinitivo.
We owe this observation to D r . D . K a s t o v s k y , Tübingen. A l t h o u g h there is no
conclusive evidence to prove or disprove this view, we have incorporated it i n the
synoptical d i a g r a m given i n 9.
Cf. O w e n T h o m a s , Transformational
Grammar and the Teacher of English (New
Y o r k , etc., 1965), p. 119, who does not, however, givo a m a t r i x .
B . Strang i n a review of M . Joos, The English Verb: Forms and Meaning, a n d F . R .
P a l m e r , A Linguistic Study of the English Verb, in : Foundations of Langtiage 3 (1967),
p p . 317—321, esp. p. 320.
It is therefore amazing that n o b o d y should have noticed this situation up to now.
Gleason (p. 83) cites o n l y " t h e two commonest allomorphs of {-Di}", v i z . / d , t/ a.s
instance o f assimilation, b u t remarks, i n the case of {Zj}, that one of the three
allomorphs / i z , z, s/ has to be selected as the base form, from which the other two
m a y be explained. H e r e b y " o n e is about as convenient as the o t h e r " (p. 82). T h i s
m a y be correct i n some cases, e. g. the allomorphs / i n , i m , i n / (cf. 7.1.), though
not here, as o n a higher level of abstractness, only / i z / is purely phonologically
conditioned, after sibilants (cf. 6.), since both / z / a n d / s / c o u l d , i n principle, also
occur after vowels. I n fact, W . Nelson F r a n c i s , The Structure of American
English
(New Y o r k , 1958) considers / i z / as " t h e normal form of the p l u r a l suffix { ^ β } "
(p. 213) f r o m w h i c h the other two m a y be deduced, b u t not for the reason just
g i v e n . H o c k e t t (p. 282) uses the criteria which have induced us to h o l d the view
presented i n 6., b u t chooses / z / as the base form (p. 280). H e states correctly that
" . . . T h e base f o r m i n automatic alternation is the alternant which appears i n
those environments i n w h i c h the phonemic habits of the language do not force the
choice. I n E n g l i s h , the phonemic shapes / z / , / s / , a n d /i>z/ a l l occur after a v o w e l :
lt
3
2
3
172
Leonhard
Lipka
seize / s i j z / , cease /sijs/, a n d ideas /ajdijaz/ show the three after the vowel / i j / . . . '
(p. 282). T h i s is exactly the reason w h y o n l y / i z / is phonologically conditioned, i . e.
the choice is forced b y the phonemic habits of the language (note that ideas does
not contain the a l l o m o r p h / i z / ) . H o c k e t t then goes on to say that
. . / z / is replaced
b y / s / after voiceless consonants after w h i c h / z / is p h o n e m i c a l l y impossible . . .
It is replaced b y / o z / after six consonants [i.e. the sibilants] after w h i c h n e i t h e r / z /
nor /s/ is phonemically possible . .
(p. 282). It is, however, the u n m a r k e d form
of the n o u n or verb that has to be regarded as the basis of the explanation (which
is not the same as the base form) — not a n a l l o m o r p h of the affix — a n d that
determines which allomorph is chosen, either b y means of assimilation or dissim­
ilation. O n l y the three allomorphs in conjunction represent the morpheme {D }
or {Zj}, a n d it is this affixed morpheme as a whole w h i c h is influenced b y the
preceding final phoneme of the stem.
A t another point i n the structure of the E n g l i s h language, the barrier between
nouns a n d verbs is also not very high, v i z . i n a n area of w o r d - f o r m a t i o n , where
verbs are derived f r o m nouns b y means of zero-derivation. Cf. H . M a r c h a n d , „ D i e
A b l e i t u n g desubstantivischer V e r b e n m i t N u l l m o r p h e m i m E n g l i s c h e n , Französi­
schen u n d D e u t s c h e n " , i n : Die Neueren Sprachen (1964), S. 105—118; a n d F r i t z
Preuss, „Konversion oder Z e r o - D e r i v a t i o n " , i n : Lebende Sprachen 7 (1962), 8
(1963) a n d 9 (1964).
O u r attention was d r a w n to this fact b y D r . D . K a s t o v s k y . Cf. also footnote 22,
eep. the remarks b y H o c k e t t . W e are not here discussing the questions of the
influence of morpheme boundaries, a n d of the different behaviour of g r a m m a t i c a l
a n d lexical morphemes. (Note that /s/ after vowels i n voice, cease is f o u n d i n
monomorphemic words.)
Cf. Strang, p p . 50f. I n A m e r i c a n E n g l i s h clusters w i t h the l i q u i d / r / followed by
voiceless consonants are c o m m o n , e. g. in dark, shirk, force, harsh, cart, hurt.
A c t u a l l y , we have two h o m o n y m o u s morphemes, w h i c h are no longer p r o d u c t i v e i n
E n g l i s h . T h e cluster /άθ/ a n d the example thousandths are g i v e n i n Strang (pp.
50f.), b u t m a n y speakers of R P pronounce jtSj, a n d thousandths only w i t h finaJ
/n@s/.
Cf. the example of the different distribution of variants of / k / i n E n g l i s h , A r a b i c .
H i n d i , a n d L o r n a given b y Gleason (pp. 260ff.).
A s already mentioned i n 3.2.4., 0 can be explained as the result of complete
assimilation.
T h e assimilation in the case of ir- a n d il- is complete i n B r i t i s h E n g l i s h . W e can
therefore regard illegal a n d irrelevant as h a v i n g the same a l l o m o r p h / i / .
Cf. footnote 22, a n d also 7.
Cf. H . M a r c h a n d , Gat., p p . 119—121, a n d , b y the same author, the review of K a r l
E . Z i m m e r , Affixai negation in English and other languages (New Y o r k , 1964), i n :
Language 42 (1966), p p . 134—142, where it is pointed out that non-combinations
are essentially different.
W e owe this observation to Prof. H . M a r c h a n d who has d r a w n our attention to the
fact. Cf. also Cat., p. 157.
T h e use of the above s y n o p t i c a l d i a g r a m , for representing the situation described,
was suggested to us b y D r . D . K a s t o v s k y .
T h i s was suggested to us b y D r . H . E . B r e i d e , Tübingen. Cf. also the r e m a r k s on
the distinction between morphology, word-formation, a n d s y n t a x , a n d the gener­
ative m o d e l which attempts to demonstrate this, i n L . L i p k a , „Kugelsicher
—à Vépreuve des balles, E i n e Lücke i m W o r t b i l d u n g s s y s t e m des Französischen ', in :
Festschrift H. Marchand, p p . 127—143 (The H a g u e , 1968), esp. §§ 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, T h e
following symbols are used in the order of their appearance (note t h a t braces { } do
:
x
2 3
2 4
2 5
2 6
2 7
2 8
2 9
3 0
3 1
3 2
3 3
3 4
4
Assimilation
and Dissimilation
as Regulating
Factors
173
not hero signify 'morpheme', but enclose elements which m a y alternatively bo
selected): X = n o u n stem or verb stem, gmor = grammatical morpheme, A l ,
=
morphologically conditioned a l l o m o r p h , A l h = phonologically conditioned allo­
m o r p h , S t e m i v = stem a l l o m o r p h of verb, Stemmi — stem a l l o m o r p h of verb or
noun, R e p = replacive, Xas = certain n o u n stems ending in /os/ spelt -us. T h i s
class is p r i m a r i l y phonologically conditioned, a n d open, but also morphologically
conditioned on a higher level. X — a l l n o u n stems not belonging to class X^s, a n d
verb stems, X ! = stems ending in sibilant or alveolar stop, X = stems not ending
in sibilant or alveolar stop, Xsit>i = certain n o u n stems a n d names ending in sibi­
lant, X s i b 2 — n o u n stem -f* {Zj}, X i v i = certain verb stems ending i n alveolar
stop, Xsib/aiv = a l l other n o u n a n d verb stems ending in sibilant or alveolar stop,
Xsit> = n o u n a n d verb stems ending in sibilant, X i v = verb stem ending in alveo­
lar stop, Xvoiced = stem ending in voiced phoneme, Xvoiceiess = stem ending i n
voiceless phoneme.
n
P
r
a
n
2
a
a