1. No category

THE STUARTS
James I (1603-1625)


After the death of Elizabeth I King James
VI of Scotland ascended to the English
throne as James I of England
He seemed an excellent successor:
• 20 years experience as the king ofScotland
• A moderate Protestant, knowing how to deal
with religious situation
But his experience was good for
Scotland: the English system of
government, influenced by Parliament
and the Church was very different
On a personal level James was
scholarly and intelligent, and
especially enjoyed detailed
theological debates. This interest
may have encouraged his hatred
and suspicion of witchcraft and
bolstered his belief in the divine
right of kings, which asserted that
the sovereign had a God-given
right to the throne and was the
source of all laws.
James's image was tarnished by
his appearance and by his habits.
He had thin rickety legs and a
tongue which was too large for
his mouth, which made him drink
'very uncomely' and slurred his
speech. He gave strong
indications that he was
homosexual and was paranoid
The Religious Matters




At first James was content with the
religious situation and raised hopes of
both the Catholics and the Puritans.
Acted as a mediator between the
moderate of the Church of England and
the more hard-line Puritans at the
Hampton Court conference
Personally organised the revision of the
Bible (as suggested by the Puritans).
The “Authorised Version” (1611) became
the standard Bible in use.
The title-page to the Authorised
Version of the Bible, the new
translation instigated by James I
and published in 1611. This was to
have an enduring impact wherever
the English language and Anglican
Church spread, until the second
half of the twentieth century.
Two prophets, Moses left and
Aaron right, stand within the wall
of the Old Testament which
supports the four Evangelists
above, behind whom stand the
Apostles. At the top the radiance of
the Tetragrammaton, the fourlettered Hebrew name of God,
outshines both the sun and the
moon.
The Puritans –
From 1564 – members of the Church of
England who wished to eliminate Roman
Catholic survivals in church ritual, or
substitute a presbyterian for an episcopal
form of church government. The Puritan
theological position was essentially
Calvinist and was associated with strict
observance of the Sabbath, moral
inflexibility and abstinance from pleasure.
They were identified with the Parliamentary
opposition under James I and Charles I





During the conference James took a neutral line
until the Puritans used the term 'presbyter'
(meaning a church elder, not subject to a
bishop) which he associated with the militant
puritanism of Scotland.
The conference quickly ended. The Puritans
left. The king declared: 'I shall make them
conform themselves, or I will harry them out of
the land.'
Groups of Puritans fled to Holland, but they
were determined to establish their own
communities.
In 1620 a number of exiles, and Puritans from
England, set sail from Plymouth in The
Mayflower for the Americas.
These pilgrim fathers founded the New England
colonies.
The Gunpowder Plot (1605)




James reintroduced the Catholic penalties for
not attending Church of England services, and
several attempts were made against his life.
The most serious was the Gunpowder Plot in
1605. A group of Catholic conspirators decided
to kill the king, peers and MPs as they
assembled for the opening of Parliament.
A veiled warning was given to a nobleman in
the Lords, who passed the message to the
government. The cellars of the Houses of
Parliament were searched and Guy Fawkes was
caught red-handed with the explosives.
The event is still remembered by bonfires and
fireworks on 5 November.
A Dutch view of the Gunpowder Plot. Above, the conspirators, depicted as
country gentlemen, converse, while below they meet their savage fate.
Several of the conspirators, including the most famous Guy Fawkes, were
dragged from the Tower to Westminster, where they were hanged, drawn and
Rex pacificus (the royal peacemaker)



In his desire for peace and unity, he embarked
on a plan to unify the laws of England and
Scotland. He was unsuccessful, but from 1604
onwards he used the title king of Great Britain
to signify the union of the kingdoms by one
monarch.
He wanted peace in Europe and brought the
15-year-old war with Spain to an end and
sought to placate both Protestants and
Catholics.
In February 1613 James's daughter, Princess Elizabeth, married
Frederick, the Elector Palatine of the Rhine, and James joined a
Protestant union of European princes.
The king that never
was.
James I's eldest son,
Henry, died of typhoid
fever in 1612. He was
a young man of 18, of
exceptional promise,
with a passionate
interest in the arts and
a commitment to
revive the vanished
glories of the previous
reign. His death was a
tragedy.
Here, attended by the
Earl of Essex, he is
about to slay the stag
at his feet in a picture
painted in 1603.
Charles I, 1625-1649
Charles succeeded James in
1625, a year which has been
seen as a turning-point in
English history.
The most obvious reason for
this judgement lies in the
new king's character. As a
child Charles was shy and
lonely - traits which
remained with him all his life
and were indicated by a
stammer and a cold reserved
manner.
Within two months of
succeeding to the throne,
Charles I married Henrietta
Maria, the French Princess.
Marriage to the Catholic had
not endeared him to an
overwhelmingly Protestant
Parliament
Charles I with his queen,
Henrietta Maria, and their two
eldest children, the future
Charles II at his father's knee
and Princess Mary in her
mother's arms.
This huge picture was the
first of the great series of
portraits painted by the
recently arrived court painter,
Sir Anthony van Dyck, which
were to immortalise the king
and his court.
Charles I dining in public
at Whitehall Palace
Relations with Parliament (1625-1629)




Parliament had been summoned by
Charles in 1625-6 and 1628-9.
By 1629 the relations between King and
Parliament had deteriorated
The reasons for the breakdown in cooperation between Parliament and the
king were numerous (his favorites f.ex.),
but centred upon the raising of taxation
and parliamentary rights.
Charles dissolved and recalled
Parliament several times
RULE WITHOUT PARLIAMENT, 1629-1640
The House of Commons
drew up a Petition of Right
which emphasised the
ancient rights of the people,
and asserted that no man
could be imprisoned without
trial. With great reluctance
Charles accepted it.
Resentful at the Petition of
Right and the rejoicing at
Buckingham's death, he got
determined to rule without
Parliament.
He did so for the next
William Laud (1573-1645),




The Archbishop of Canterbury
The ideologist of Arminianism (Stressed the
role of the sacramental and ceremonial aspects
of the church service rather than the sermon
and the scriptures)
The general fear of Catholicism was reinforced
by the activities of Catholics associated with the
queen. Puritans, however, were harassed for
being too Protestant; Laud urged bishops to
inspect their bishoprics and punish anyone who
did not conform.
Many Puritans fled, thus increasing the
numbers in the New England colonies.
IRELAND




From 1610 onwards an official policy of
introducing Protestant 'plantations' into
Ireland had been adopted.
Land in the north of Ireland was divided
up among wealthy City of London
companies, and the new settlers (about
13,000 by 1622) were English or Scottish
Protestants.
The area of English political domination,
called the Pale, centred around Dublin.
Elsewhere Catholics still predominated.
Thomas Wentworth (1593-1641)




Became the Earl of Strafford
In 1633 arrived in Ireland as Lord
Deputy.
He was highly successful at the court
and, like Laud, was intimately
involved with Charles's 'personal
rule’
His ecclesiastical reforms, which
imposed the Arminian ideas of
Archbishop Laud, were particularly
disliked in Ireland.
The reasons for the Civil War

The reasons for the English Civil War
have been debated by historians for
centuries:
• the crown's disputes with Parliament;
• the tensions between Puritans and the
Church of England;
• the locally organised resistance to the
financial, religious and political policies of the
crown;
• and the increasing, capitalist prosperity of
the gentry and merchants who challenged
the privileges of the established nobility
The pretext of the war.
The “Short Parliament”




Charles and Archbishop Laud attempted to
impose religious uniformity upon Scotland via
the English Prayer Book
As a counter-measure the Scottish
Presbyterians signed a National Covenant to
'recover the purity of the Gospel’
The two sides collected the armies so unevenly
matching that Charles signed a peace treaty
without a battle.
In 1639 he recalled Parliament to vote him
more money, but it refused until its grievances
had been discussed; after a couple of weeks
the 'Short Parliament' was dissolved.


THE “LONG PARLIAMENT”
Charles was now in serious financial
difficulties. Parliament was recalled once
again in 1640
Parliament greatly increased its own
power
• by making laws forbidding it to be dissolved without
its own consent and
• by suggesting that Parliament, and not the king,
should control the army


Two sides began to form
Charles tried to arrest his five principal
opponents and lost any support of MPs
The Start of the Civil War(1642)
At the beginning of the Civil War the
support for each side split the country
geographically.
In broad terms the north, Midlands,
Wales and the south-west supported
the king, while the south, East Anglia
and London supported Parliament.
London contained a tenth of the entire
population and had a large associated
revenue with which to back
Parliament.
There were some notable exceptions
to this broad division: Oxford and
Cambridge supported the king, Bristol,
Hull and Plymouth supported
Parliament.
Catholics, supporters of the Church of
England, the aristocracy and their
tenants tended to follow the king;
Puritans, yeoman farmers and
merchants tended to follow
Parliament.
The armies, too, had different characteristics. The Royalist army had a
flamboyant image and excellent cavalry, hence their name 'Cavaliers'. The
Parliamentarian army had an image of religious zeal, dour temperament and
the belief that God was on their side; they supposedly got their name of
'Roundheads' from their short-cropped hair.
Part of a musket drill as
recorded by Henry Hexham
in his The Principles of the
Art Militanc published in
1637. Hexham was a soldier
for over forty years. His
book is a manual for the
most up-to-date techniques
of his day, those used in the
Civil War.
The frontispiece of a
Royalist book describing
early events in the Civil War.
The New Model Army (1645)
Largely the creation of Oliver
Cromwell, it was a precursor
of modern armies as it
efficiently welded together a
large number of troops.
Professionalism was the key:
discipline was strict - no
swearing or gambling was
allowed, training was
thoroughly and the men could
be trusted to obey orders in a
crisis.
Perhaps more importantly the
soldiers were regularly paid in the later stages of the war
the unpaid Royalist troops
deserted in large numbers.
A panoramic view of the battle of Naseby, 14 June 1645. The two armies face
each other with the king alone on horseback in the centre
The end of the Civil War (1646)




After some hard fighting the
Parliamentarian forces defeated the of
Royalist army and the king's cause was
all but lost.
In 1646 Charles surrendered
Being a prisoner he plotted and posed a
threat to the Parliament
After some hesitation a small “Rump”
Parliament sentenced the king to death
Oliver Cromwell and officers from the army expelling from Parliament any
member opposed to their policies in November 1648. The ninety-six who
remained were known as The Rump.
Charles made no
defence: he simply
denied that the
court had any
validity.
Some judges
refused to try
Charles on the
basis that 'No court
can try the King'.
The death warrant of Charles I, signed by regicides
On 30 January
1649 Charles I
was executed
in Whitehall.
It was the first
and only time
that an English
king had been
tried by a court
representing
the people,
found guilty
and executed.
An imaginary reconstruction of the execution of Charles I in 1649.
Charles stepped out to the scaffold from the windows of the
Banqueting House at Whitehall, and confronted death with courage
and dignity.




To many Puritans the Civil War and the
execution of the king indicated that a perfect
society was not only possible, but was
imminent.
It was believed that King Jesus would replace the old
monarchy and a 'godly reformation' would transform
society. Some foresaw that God would sooner or later
shake all the Monarchies of the Earth', and others saw
'the kingdom of Jesus Christ begin to flourish, while the
wicked . . . do now perish and fade like a blowne-offblossom'.
This enthusiasm was not, of course, universal
as many people were horrified by the execution
of Charles and were fearful for their land and
property.
A balance was now needed between radical
reforms and the stability required for local law
and order.
In the aftermath of the
execution of the king
extreme sects looked for the
fruition of their beliefs. One
such group, the Diggers, an
offshoot of the Levellers,
occupied land near Waltonon-Thames and began a
colony in which all goods
would be held in common.
One of their traits, recorded
here, was their refusal to doff
their hats to their superiors.
The Commonwealth
(1649-1653)
OLIVER
CROMWELL
Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658)




a country gentleman from Huntingdonshire
converted to puritanism at about 30.
became an MP.
during the Civil War commanded men from the
eastern counties, had instigated the creation of
the New Model Army, and had risen to be a
lieutenant-general, second only in command to
General Fairfax.
then became a general and, after Fairfax's
resignation in 1650, the leader of the army: an
all-powerful post.
Cromwell's character is
remarkably difficult to assess.
Some historians have seen
him as an evil genius, whilst
others emphasise his belief in
democracy, 'godly rule' and
toleration.
At times he could be
enlightened and a
revolutionary idealist, and at
others a pragmatist, carefully
building up political alliances
and weighing various factions.
He was also caught between
conflicting pressures: he tried
to rule through Parliament,
but gained his power from his
leadership of the army, which
included many radical
Puritans.
A contemporary painting of Oliver Cromwell
The Protectorate, 1653-1658




After the execution of the king Britain became
a republic called Commonwealth
The Rump Parliament continued in power and
in February 1649 the House of Lords and the
monarchy were formally abolished, along with
the Anglican Church
The Rump Parliament appeared to be rather
conservative in nature. The abolitions were not
made effective
In 1653 Cromwell dissolved Parliament and got
the official title of Lord Protector
The end of the Protectorate




Cromwell instigated various reforms and his
religious toleration was notable. Jews were
allowed back into the country for the first time
since the reign of Edward I, and new sects
flourished, such as the Society of Friends (also
known as Quakers)
There was no state harassment concerning
religion
But the image of the joyless oppression
instigated by some of the Puritan majorgenerals, through whom Cromwell ruled over
the country, has too often coloured the tone of
the Protectorate as a whole
The Protectorate was loosing popularity
Life under the Protectorate was shaped by the Puritans. Laws were passed
against swearing, dancing, drinking, gambling and football. Theatres and
inns were closed. No one was allowed to work on Sundays or go for a walk
on the Sabbath.Even Christmas dinner was forbidden. Many people hated it.





In 1657 Parliament nominated Cromwell's son,
Richard Cromwell (1626-1712), as his
successor
The following year, on 3 September 1658, the
Lord Protector died.
Richard Cromwell quickly realised that he had
not his father's genius and retired to his farm.
After a year of confusion and generally
indecisive government General Monck marched
his army down from Scotland and assembled a
Parliament.
Charles was invited to become king and the
Commonwealth and Protectorate came to an
end.
Charles II (1660-1685)




After the execution of Charles I two
campaigns were mounted by his son,
Charles, to claim his inheritance
Both were unsuccessful: first tie he was
defeated by Cromwell in Scotland at
Dunbar in 1650, second time - at
Worcester.
Charles was forced to flee and escaped
to France, waiting for his time to return.
Charles II arrived back in England in
1660 and was met by cheering crowds as
he made his way to London
On May 29 1660 Charles II made his entry into London, the climax of which
was his reception by both Houses of Parliament in Whitehall Palace, the very
building from whose windows his father had stepped to be executed in 1649.
May 29 was the king's birthday; it was to be made into an annual national
festival celebrating the restoration of the Monarchy
. He was crowned on 23 April
1661 and was married to
Catherine of Braganza, the
daughter of the king of
Portugal, in the same year.
It is debatable whether he
loved his convent-bred wife,
but his mistresses and liaisons
with other women were, and
still are, legendary. In all
Charles fathered at least
fourteen illegitimate children,
but produced no legitimate
heir.
Charles was essentially a
cynic and pragmatist who was
willing to change his beliefs
for political advantage. He
was also a man of wit,
intelligence and charm, but he
has been described as lazy
and self-indulgent. He “never
said a foolish thing, nor ever
did a wise one”
THE RESTORATION



The most obvious point of the Restoration was
that the monarchy was reestablished, though
still limited by laws passed in previous reigns.
Parliament was also restored on the old basis of
two Houses, the Commons and the Lords. The
power of the crown was limited by the
Parliament: it could not enforce
unparliamentary taxation, such as forced loans,
nor could it arbitrarily arrest MPs
The third restoration was of the Church of
England and the bishoprics



The most dramatic change came about with the
restoration of the supremacy of the
Anglican Church.
After a strongly Royalist Parliament was elected
in 1661, action was taken against those who
were Protestant but not Anglican. These
people, grouped together under the term
'nonconformists', included Baptists,
Congregationalists and Quakers.
The measures, known as the Clarendon Code,
were aimed at diminishing the potential
influence of the nonconformists; they were
silenced by laws
• requiring them to agree with every word of the Book
of Common Prayer
• and forbidding them to hold a government office or
go to university
THREE GREAT DISASTERS:

the return of the bubonic plague in 1665
• the last great outbreak that hit London especially hard; the city was
brought to a standstill and tens of thousands died. Carts carrying the
dead were wheeled through the dark, insanitary streets and crosses
were painted on the doors of the houses where people had died.

In 1666 a fire of London started
• in a baker's shop in Pudding Lane and rapidly spread through London's
closely-packed wooden buildings. The fire raged for three days; in
some places the ground was too hot to walk upon for two weeks
afterwards. Rebuilding started quickly, with an order from the king
that buildings should be built of brick.

In 1665 the Second Dutch War had started,
and by 1667 the king's finances were so
depleted that he ordered the English fleet to be
laid up in the Medway at the mouth of the Thames.
Samuel Pepys (1633-1703)
one of the greatest of English diarists, he recorded the
events in graphic detail. His diaries make compelling
reading and give a wonderful insight into the times.
Sir Christopher Wren (1632-1723)
Christopher Wren rose to
prominence as a surveyor
and architect: his
masterpiece, the new St
Paul's Cathedral, rose
phoenix-like from the ashes
and was a marvel of its age
with its high-spirited and
dramatic classical style.
Sir Christopher Wren, with his most
important achievement, St Paul’s
Cathedral, in the background
ANTI-CATHOLICISM AND CATHOLICISM



Between 1668 and 1681 religion was at
the forefront of politics
Charles antagonised many Anglicans and
Protestants by his support of Catholicism
and by treaties with the French king Louis
XIV
Parliament agreed with the Anti-Catholic
mood of the people and excluded the
rightful heir, James, Duke of York, from
the throne because he was Catholic.
The 'Exclusion Crisis' over James's right to
succeed to the throne focused attention
upon two groups of MPs:


Those who supported James tended to be
Anglicans and were nicknamed 'Tories'
after Catholic outlaws in Ireland.
In opposition were the 'Whigs', so called
after the Whiggamores who were fiercely
Protestant Scottish drovers. The Whigs
supported the claim of Charles's
illegitimate son, the Protestant Duke of
Monmouth. (the Whigs later plotted to kill Charles and
James, were executed and the rights of James were resumed)
The Glorious Revolution


William decided to accept the invitation
His tactics were to state that
• he wanted to protect Protestant rights rather than bidding
directly for the crown
• and to avoid a civil war by not provoking full-scale battles




William defeated James (who fled, was captured and
allowed to escape to France) without a battle
Uniquely in English history Parliament agreed
to recognise William and Mary as joint
sovereigns
In return the new monarchs had to accept
a Bill of Rights, which established the
supremacy of Parliament over the monarchy.
William of Orange landing at Torbay on November5th, 1688.
A 19th-ctnture picture of Queen Anne, daughter of
James II, and the Kings of the Garter.
THE UNION OF ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND



The most important measure to be
passed by Parliament during Anne's reign
was the political union of England and
Scotland
Scotland kept its own church and law
courts but would be represented in the
London Parliament and have equal
trading rights with England.
In 1707 the last Scottish Parliament
assembled and on 1 May 1707 the
'United Kingdom of Great Britain'
came into existence.
THE ARTS



In the arts the trend under the Stuarts
was towards the secular and rational,
with considerable influence from
classicism: the works of architects Inigo
Jones and Sir Christopher Wren, and
painters Rubens and van Dyke
Drama declined from the height of
Shakespearean tragedy
The greatest literature was religious
(John Bunyan, The Pilgrim’s Progress;
John Milton, Paradise Lost)
The ceiling of the
Banqueting House at
Whitehall painted by
Rubens in Antwerp.
The centre panel is
The Apotheosis of
James I.
Van Dyck's painting of the Earl of Pembroke and his family, at Wilton
House. Van Dyck was court painter under Charles II and executed
many portraits of the king and his family.
The architect and designer Inigo Jones introduced the complete classical
style from Italy into England. The Queen's house at Greenwich exhibits the
perfection of his style.
THE SCIENCES



One of the most lasting influences came from
secular thought.
Francis Bacon's (1561-1626) emphasis upon
experimental science inspired the foundation of
the Royal Society in 1662. The Society became
the focus for scientific debate and attracted a
wide range of scientists, including the chemist
Robert Boyle (1627-91) and later the
astronomer Edmund Halley (1656—1742).
King Charles himself took a keen interest in the
Society and founded the Royal Observatory at
Greenwich in 1675:


The second half of the century was
dominated by two giants of the intellect,
both of whom had powerful secularising
effects:
John Locke (1632-1704), whose
theories of the mind laid the foundation
for ‘modern’ thought
Isaak Newton(1642-1727), whose
explanation of physics founded the
modern understanding and exploration of
the universe